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see attached **files (3)** – ## BIBL322WEEK5DIALOGUE.pdf – ## BIBL322WEEK5PART1READING.pdf – BIBL322WEEK5PART2READING.pdf **## BIBL322WEEK5DIALOGUE.pdf** Week 5 Assignment: Letter to the Roman's Outline Dialogue For this week's dialogue, please respond to the prompt stated below. A grading rubric fo…
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**files (3)**
– ## BIBL322WEEK5DIALOGUE.pdf
– ## BIBL322WEEK5PART1READING.pdf
– BIBL322WEEK5PART2READING.pdf
**## BIBL322WEEK5DIALOGUE.pdf**
Week 5 Assignment: Letter to the
Roman's Outline Dialogue
For this week's dialogue, please respond to the prompt stated
below. A grading rubric for this assignment can be found in the
"Grades and Progress" section of the main menu. Locate the
assignment and click on "View Rubric."
Use the article below from DPL’s Dictionary of Paul’s Letters:
● “Households and Household Codes”
And select ONE of the prompt questions below:
● What is the specific issue that Paul
addresses in Rome (chs. 14-15)? Be sure
to include specific biblical references from
different sections of Paul’s theological
instruction in chapters 1-13 which support
your understanding of the key issue of the
letter.
(1) Select and read ONE of the assigned articles above from
DPL’s Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. In two developed
paragraphs (minimum of 250 words), present to the class the
key truths and principles that you believe are most interesting
or most helpful for the class to learn from the article that you
read (so that we can learn collectively). At the end of these
paragraphs, cite the article as a bibliographic entry
(“article/chapter in an edited book”). No need for footnotes or
references in this section.
(2) Choose and answer ONE of the prompt questions above
based on your reading (cite your textbook or outside sources).
Write at least two developed, cohesive paragraphs and
incorporate specific detail, 3rd person, and support (minimum
of 250 words). Cite your source(s) each time they are used.
Include at least three scholarly sources (textbooks and/or
outside scholarly sources). See the rubric requirements for
grading guidelines.
– Week 5 Assignment: Letter to the Roman's Outline Dialogue
– For this week's dialogue, please respond to the prompt stated below. A grading rubric for this assignment can be found in the "Grades and Progress" section of the main menu. Locate the assignment and click on "View Rubric."
**## BIBL322WEEK5PART1READING.pdf**
HOUSEHOLDS AND HOUSEHOLD CODES
The household during the early Roman imperial period played a central part in the economic,
cultural, political, and religious life of the society. Aristotle’s theories of the family and polis (Pol.
1253b) reflected and shaped social reality, and his ideas, broadly speaking, influenced the
Greco-Roman world. Imperial Rome emphasized the Roman family as foundational to the
imperial power base. Three pairs of superordinate/subordinate groups formed the theoretical
family: husband/wife, father/child, and owner/*slave. The highly stratified culture found
representation in the hierarchically ordered family structure that emphasized cohesion, but at
the expense of the subordinate members. While *women and freeborn children had some legal
protections and agency, slaves lacked social honor and had no legal family or inheritance and
few legal protections; their life could be described as “social death” (Patterson, 38).
1. Greco-Roman Households
2. Greco-Roman Household Codes
3. Pauline Household Codes
1. Greco-Roman Households.
Family units included parents and children, and perhaps grandparents, cousins, slaves, and
freed men and women. The family revolved around the parents, and even more, the oldest male
(father or grandfather). Theoretically, the father had absolute authority over his children, but in
practice, social conventions and pressures mitigated this power, except in one important area:
the father chose whether to raise a child born to his wife (Cicero, Att. 11.9).
Most people married in their late teens or early twenties, were widowed or divorced, and
remarried once or twice. Couples hoped for a harmonious relationship. The *marriage was sine
manu, which meant that authority over the wife was not transferred to the husband by her family,
but the latter retained authority (manus). The woman brought a dowry to the marriage, which
was returned to her if her husband died or they divorced. The wife might have her own sources
of *wealth outside of her husband’s control. Some households were led by women. If a woman
was widowed or divorced, her children were considered part of the husband’s family.
Infant mortality was high, with approximately 50 percent of children dying before their tenth
birthday (Laes, 26). Children were thought to need strict discipline and training, for they lacked
reason. Additionally, their character was established at birth, and circumstances revealed it.
About age seven, children began working in shops or fields, although there is also artwork
portraying children playing with toys (Laes, 22-49). In their early years, slave and free children
were raised together in the home (MacDonald, 36-48). Adult children showed their piety by
caring for their aging parents, a duty second only to honoring the gods.
2. Greco-Roman Household Codes.
2.1. Aristotle’s Household Structure and Social Hierarchy. The household codes (Haustafel, pl.
Haustafeln) grew out of Aristotle’s political theories formed in Athens, which at the time was a
slave economy. Reflecting on the ontology or nature of male, female, child, and slave, Aristotle
argued that the superordinate member of the pair (male, father, slave master) was by nature
superior and better fitted to command (Pol. 1.5.1-2). Free men were distinguished by distinct
virtues such as courage and self-control (Hering, 206); females were by nature inferior in both
the physical and rational sense (Historia animalium 2.3.501b19-21; De partibus animalium
2.7.653a28-29). Thus, the wife showed courage by submitting to her husband (Pol. 1260a).
Aristotle posited that some humans were “natural slaves,” and since nature is good, therefore
the slave and the owner benefit from slavery (Pol. 1252a30-34; 1255a28; Garnsey, 108-27).
Aristotle did not base his opinions of slavery on race or skin color but viewed his Greek culture
as superior and evaluated other ethnic groups as inferior, and thus more likely to be natural
slaves. The slave had minimal virtue and lacked reason; therefore, the owner must rule the
slave absolutely (Eth. nic. 8.11.6-7). Aristotle labeled the slave a human tool whose owner had
despotic power. In contrast, the father was to rule his child benevolently (Pol. 1278b32-37; Eth.
nic. 1161a 30-b6).
2.2. Roman Modification to Aristotle’s Household Structure. Stoic philosophers of the first
century AD focused less on politics and more on *ethics. Musonius Rufus concentrated on the
husband/wife pair, urging husbands to use sexual self-control. A husband should promote
philosophical learning with his wife, so that she could keep the house, be chaste, and forgo
extravagances and passions. Martha Nussbaum cautions that what looks like advocacy for
wives in Musonius Rufus neglects the fact that her virtue is shown only in certain areas of life, in
the domestic sphere, and not in social, political, and cultural arenas where decisions affecting
her would be made (Nussbaum, 302).
Plutarch’s treatise Advice to the Bride and Groom likewise advocates for wives to be taught
*philosophy to mitigate the woman’s natural tendency toward irrationality and passions. Plutarch
modifies Aristotle’s insistence on male superiority and female inferiority but still sees the
husband as the superior “soul” and the wife as the inferior “body” in the union. The harmony and
affection promoted within the marriage is based on the wife accepting her husband’s gods,
friends, and goals (Plutarch, Conjugalia Praecepta).
Seneca looked at the owner/slave pair. He was most interested in fostering an owner’s
self-control and spoke metaphorically about the owner enslaved by his passions. Seneca
rejected Aristotle’s argument of the natural slave and encouraged merciful treatment of slaves to
prevent their uprising (Ben. 3.20.1-2; Contr. 7.6.18; Ep. 123.1-4).
The male owner also had sexual privileges over his male and female slave, and owners often
prostituted their slaves. Social norms frowned on female owners having sex with their slaves.
Slaves might be permitted by their owner to form a marriage of sorts, but the slave “husband”
did not have exclusive sexual privilege, for the slave woman was still sexually available to her
owner and anyone to whom he gave her. Additionally, any children from the slave marriage were
the property of the owner. Owners might use the threat of separation to make the slave couple
work harder. Slaves as young as seven, but typically older, could be used sexually. Art and
poetry testify to this ubiquitous practice; for example, a slave owner wrote a eulogy to his
deceased twelve-year-old slave boy, Glaucias, a sexual favorite, a delicium (Laes, 223-30).
However, no evidence exists that Jewish families or the Christian communities sexually used
slaves (Philo, Abr. 133; Spec. 3, 37-42; Contempl. 60-62; Josephus, Ant. 1.200-201; Ag. Ap.
2.37 §§273-275; Did. 2.2; Barn. 10.8). Scholars debate whether Paul permitted Christian
owners sexual access to their slaves (Glancy, 60; Harper, 87-92).
2.3. Freedmen and Freedwomen. An important social and legal category not reflected in the
household codes is that of the freed man and woman. Slaves could be manumitted, but the
social stain of slavery remained on their character, and they continued to serve their former
owner in the capacity of a client to their patron. Slaves might save money (peculium) to buy their
*freedom, although the money would remain in some sense with the owner, who was now the
patron (Mouritsen, 177-80; 1 Cor 7:22). Female slaves were more typically freed through
marriage to their owner, and they might earn money from gifts for sexual favors (Pomeroy,
195-98). Rarely were agricultural or mining slaves freed; most died on the job.
2.4. Jewish Authors on Marriage and Slavery. Jewish writers weighed in on marriage and
slavery (Hezser, 124-29). Josephus states that Scripture indicates a woman is inferior to her
husband in all things (Ag. Ap. 2.25 §204). Philo of Alexandria analyzed slavery through the lens
of Torah’s teaching on the Sabbath. Slaves and owners were of the same nature (Spec. 2.69;
3.137), and owners “submitted” to do tasks on Sabbath that were regularly done by the slave,
for the slave abstains from work on that day (Spec. 2.66-67).
3. Pauline Household Codes.
At least some of Paul’s churches met in homes (Adams, 10). For example, Paul addresses
Nympha and the Laodicean *church meeting in her home (Col 4:15), and his *coworkers
Priscilla and Aquila held church meetings in their home (1 Cor 16:19). Education and training in
the *gospel message, along with rites of *baptism and the *Lord’s Supper, characterized these
meetings. The familial categories of married/single/widowed, freeborn and slave children, slave
women and men, freedmen and -women, and slave owners shaped the community as much as
their occupational categories or whether they were Jew or *Gentile. For example, when Paul
answers the Corinthians’ questions about marriage, he also mentions the Jew and Gentile (1
Cor 7:18-20), the slave (1 Cor 7:21-24), and daughters (1 Cor 7:36-38). Paul adds another
dimension to the church family, namely, the virgin/celibate adult woman who does not marry but
serves the church community (1 Tim 5:3-16).
3.1. The Context of the Household Codes in Ephesians and Colossians. The household code
structure occurs most directly in Ephesians and Colossians. Scholars offer several reasons for
its inclusion. Some argue the instructions were apologetic, presenting the church as a
nonthreatening group that supported the social status quo (Lincoln, 397). This position assumes
the content of the instructions are in line with the broader cultural norms. Others suggest the
focus is inward as the author instructs the young church in living out the unity in community
established in Christ (Gombis, 176). Scholars debate the authorship of both epistles, but to
avoid the awkwardness of using “the author” or speaking with the passive voice, this article
presents Paul as the author.
Paul introduces his household codes section in Ephesians with a lengthy sentence about being
filled with the *Holy Spirit, expressed by singing psalms, giving thanks, and submitting to each
other out of reverence or *fear (phobos) for *Christ (Eph 5:18-21; see also Col 3:15-17). The
reciprocity reflected in the reciprocal pronoun “one another” (allēlous) and the insistence on
respect being given first to Christ frame the subsequent injunctions for the three pairs within the
household structure.
Paul repeats the title “Christ” throughout the codes, reinforcing Christ as the standard by which
to understand and emulate reverence, *love, and obedience. Colossians focuses throughout the
short letter on Christ as *Lord, with the believer as his *servant (Col 1:7, 23, 25; 4:7, 12). In both
letters, the context of the household codes is the church’s *worship of God and imitation of
Christ’s sacrificial love for his church.
Paul addresses the three pairs that make up the Greco-Roman culture’s conceptual family
structure: husband/wife, parent/child, owner/slave. In each case, he addresses the subordinate
member first, perhaps for two reasons. First, Paul signals his respect for them, for these letters
were read aloud in the churches. Second, Paul wishes to constrain the superordinate’s power
given by society. Paul considers an additional pair, Jew/Gentile, included in the familial structure
as siblings, adopted children of God, co-heirs together in Christ (Eph 2:15-19; see also Gal
3:28; Braxton, 94).
3.2. Husband and Wife. In Ephesians, Paul’s first sentence to wives borrows the participle
submitting from the preceding verse, thereby linking the two verses. Only two other
contemporary examples survive of wives instructed to submit (Plutarch, Conjugalia Praecepta
33; Pseudo-Callisthene 1.22.4). Usually, wives are instructed to obey their husbands. In
Colossians, Paul commands wives to submit themselves to their husbands, using the same verb
“to submit.” Paul draws on the *body metaphor he has used throughout Ephesians to refer to
the husband as the *head of his wife. The metaphorical meaning of the Greek term “head”
(kephalē) is contested. Some argue it reflects “leader” (Grudem, 51). Others suggest “source,”
such as the headwaters of a river (Fee, 502-3). A third position postulates the noun is best
understood as preeminence or as a synecdoche for the whole (Thiselton, 821). A fourth position
connects family, ancestry, and *identity within the metaphor (Westfall, 82-84). A fifth position
argues that the metaphor focuses on “one flesh” unity (Sumner, 167). In using the head/body
figure of speech, Paul opens new ways of understanding Christ and his body, the church, in
which a husband can imagine himself not in terms of *leadership but as loving his wife as Christ
loves the church.
Paul commands husbands three times to love (agapaō) their wives in a self-sacrificial way,
imitating Christ’s love (Eph 5:2, 25; see also Col 3:19). Paul commands the husband to love his
wife as his own body, as he loves himself (Eph 5:28-29; Westfall, 93-94). Such self-sacrifice by
the superordinate member of the pair is strongly countercultural and reflects the mutuality of the
Genesis quotation that husband and wife become one *flesh (see also 1 Cor 7:2-4). The wife is
not subsumed into her husband, but each as individuals join to be one flesh.
3.3. Parent and Child. The instruction for children to obey parents is qualified as “in the Lord”
(Eph 6:1; see Col 3:20). Paul uses a similar phrase when addressing wives, but he does not
stipulate that wives obey their husbands. By mentioning the Lord and citing Scripture (Ex 20:21;
Deut 5:16), Paul circumscribes obedience to those actions that would honor God; Paul does not
condone immoral requests from parents. Musonius Rufus makes a similar distinction; if a father
forbids his son to study philosophy, the son must nevertheless pursue study, for such activity
obeys the gods, which is the son’s higher calling (Musonius Rufus, Discourses 16.30-31,
104-106). Slave children attending church would have an owner, not a father per se, and adults
in the church would serve the surrogate parental role.
Romans encouraged education, and Christian communities followed suit. In the church, slave
children received the same teachings as their free counterparts by fathers, mothers, and
surrogate mothers and fathers. Paul commands fathers to not frustrate (parorgizō) or provoke
(erethizō) their children but instruct them (Eph 6:4; Col 3:21). Paul probably highlights fathers
because society empowered fathers with extensive control over their children during the father’s
lifetime. However, the commandment requires children to honor both father and mother, and
mothers (and grandmothers) educated children, as in the case of Timothy (2 Tim 1:5).
3.4. Owner and Slave. The third set within the household codes is the owner/slave pair. Before
turning to the text, a brief word must be said about the metaphorical use of “slave” in Paul’s
letters. Paul refers to himself as a slave of Christ (Rom 1:1; Phil 1:1; Titus 1:1; see also Jas 1:1,
2 Pet 1:1), drawing on OT images of the faithful Israelite serving God (Num 12:7; Jer 25:4; Ezek
38:17). Paul also describes believers as “slaves” of *righteousness, in contrast to those who are
slaves of *sin (Rom 6:17-18). The metaphor is limited, in that Paul does not imagine God or
Jesus Christ as the typical slave master who is given free rein to dominate their slaves (Harris,
142).
In Ephesians, Paul charges the slave to obey with fear and trembling (Eph 6:5), a phrase that is
best understood as respecting or honoring their human master even as all believers honor or
fear Christ (Eph 5:21; Col 3:22-25; see also Phil 2:12; 1 Cor 2:3; 2 Cor 7:15; 1 Tim 6:1-2). This
verse has been used out of context to condone domestic *violence, much to the church’s shame
(Fowl, 197). As he does with wives, so too in Ephesians 5:22 Paul adds the phrase “as to
Christ” (hōs tō Christō) and does not repeat the verb “to obey” before the phrase, although
some English translations add the verb. With this phrase, Paul stresses that the slave’s actions
provide an opportunity to model Christ to the rest of the church, thereby attaining honor.
Moreover, the slave will gain a reward from God for the good work done (Eph 6:8; Col 3:24-25;
2 Cor 5:10). Having a reward and gaining an inheritance are remarkable promises available to
the Gentile believing slave.
Paul begins his address to the owners in Ephesus with the command to do to slaves the same
things (ta auta, Eph 6:9), which can be translated “in the same way.” Paul could be pointing
owners to emulate the slaves’ wholehearted service (Eph 6:7) or their good deeds (Eph 6:8).
John Chrysostom exegetes the passage as Paul’s exhortation that owners serve their slaves
(Hom. Eph. 6.9; PG 62:157). Similarly, Paul insists to the Colossian owners that they do what is
right and equitable (to dikaion kai tēn isotēta, Col 4:1) to their slaves, a posture that dignifies the
slave in sharp contrast to wider social norms (McKnight).
Not only does the slave represent a model of discipleship for the owner, but the owner’s special
privilege of domination is taken away in Christ. Paul insists that the owner may not threaten the
slave (Eph 6:9). The injunction would include threatening the use of physical force, or the
withholding of food, water, or suitable clothing, or separating a mother from her child, or two
slaves who love each other. Paul provides no exception to this ruling; even the disobedient
slave cannot be threatened. Paul grounds his *teaching in the theological reality that God shows
no favoritism (see also Acts 10:34; Gal 2:6; Col 3:25; Jas 2:1). To the Colossians, Paul points to
the crucified and risen Lord as the master in heaven, who expects his followers to emulate the
self-sacrificial love he displayed on the *cross. Paul lives out these words in his letter to
Philemon, wherein he asks that this owner accept his newly converted slave, Onesimus, as a
brother/sibling in Christ and no longer as a slave (Philem 15-16).
See also COLOSSIANS, LETTER TO THE; EPHESIANS, LETTER TO THE; HEAD; KINSHIP
LANGUAGE IN PAUL; MAN AND WOMAN; MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE, ADULTERY AND
INCEST; SEXUALITY, SEXUAL ETHICS; SLAVE, SLAVERY; VIOLENCE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. Adams, The Earliest Christian Meeting Places: Almost Exclusively
Houses?, LNTS 450 (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2013); B. R. Braxton, No Longer Slaves:
Galatians and African American Experience (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2002); G. D.
Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987); S. E.
Fowl, Ephesians: A Commentary, NTL (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2012); P.
Garnsey, Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1996); J. A. Glancy, Slavery in Early Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); T.
Gombis, The Drama of Ephesians: Participating in the Triumph of God (Downers Grove, IL: IVP
Academic, 2010); W. Grudem, “Does κεφαλή (‘Head’) Mean ‘Source’ or ‘Authority Over’ in
Greek Literature? A Survey of 2336 Examples,” TrinJ ns 6.1 (1985): 38-59; K. Harper, From
Shame to Sin: The Christian Transformation of Sexual Morality in Late Antiquity (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 2013); M. J. Harris, Slave of Christ: A New Testament Metaphor
for Total Devotion to Christ (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999); J. P. Hering, The
Colossian and Ephesian Haustafeln in Theological Contexts: An Analysis of Their Origins,
Relationships, and Message (New York: Lang, 2007); C. Hezser, Jewish Slavery in Antiquity
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); E. Laes, Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders
Within (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); A. T. Lincoln, Ephesians, WBC 42
(Dallas: Word, 1990); M. Y. MacDonald, The Power of Children: The Construction of Families in
the Greco-Roman World (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2014); S. McKnight, The Letter to
the Colossians, NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2018); H. Mouritsen, The Freedman in
the Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); M. C. Nussbaum, “The
Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman,” in The Sleep of Reason:
Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece, ed. M. C. Nussbaum and J. Sihvola
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 283-325; O. Patterson, Slavery and Social Death:
A Comparative Study (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); S. B. Pomeroy,
Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves (New York: Schocken, 1995); S. Sumner, Men and
Women in the Church: Building Consensus on Christian Leadership (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity Press, 2003); A. C. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NIGTC (Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000); C. Westfall, Paul and Gender: Reclaiming the Apostle’s Vision for
Men and Women in Christ (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2016).
L. H. Cohick
**BIBL322WEEK5PART2READING.pdf**
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**## BIBL322WEEK5DIALOGUE.pdf**
Week 5 Assignment: Letter to the
Roman's Outline Dialogue
For this week's dialogue, please respond to the prompt stated
below. A grading rubric for this assignment can be found in the
"Grades and Progress" section of the main menu. Locate the
assignment and click on "View Rubric."
Use the article below from DPL’s Dictionary of Paul’s Letters:
● “Households and Household Codes”
And select ONE of the prompt questions below:
● What is the specific issue that Paul
addresses in Rome (chs. 14-15)? Be sure
to include specific biblical references from
different sections of Paul’s theological
instruction in chapters 1-13 which support
your understanding of the key issue of the
letter.
(1) Select and read ONE of the assigned articles above from
DPL’s Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. In two developed
paragraphs (minimum of 250 words), present to the class the
key truths and principles that you believe are most interesting
or most helpful for the class to learn from the article that you
read (so that we can learn collectively). At the end of these
paragraphs, cite the article as a bibliographic entry
(“article/chapter in an edited book”). No need for footnotes or
references in this section.
(2) Choose and answer ONE of the prompt questions above
based on your reading (cite your textbook or outside sources).
Write at least two developed, cohesive paragraphs and
incorporate specific detail, 3rd person, and support (minimum
of 250 words). Cite your source(s) each time they are used.
Include at least three scholarly sources (textbooks and/or
outside scholarly sources). See the rubric requirements for
grading guidelines.
– Week 5 Assignment: Letter to the Roman's Outline Dialogue
– For this week's dialogue, please respond to the prompt stated below. A grading rubric for this assignment can be found in the "Grades and Progress" section of the main menu. Locate the assignment and click on "View Rubric."
**## BIBL322WEEK5PART1READING.pdf**
HOUSEHOLDS AND HOUSEHOLD CODES
The household during the early Roman imperial period played a central part in the economic,
cultural, political, and religious life of the society. Aristotle’s theories of the family and polis (Pol.
1253b) reflected and shaped social reality, and his ideas, broadly speaking, influenced the
Greco-Roman world. Imperial Rome emphasized the Roman family as foundational to the
imperial power base. Three pairs of superordinate/subordinate groups formed the theoretical
family: husband/wife, father/child, and owner/*slave. The highly stratified culture found
representation in the hierarchically ordered family structure that emphasized cohesion, but at
the expense of the subordinate members. While *women and freeborn children had some legal
protections and agency, slaves lacked social honor and had no legal family or inheritance and
few legal protections; their life could be described as “social death” (Patterson, 38).
1. Greco-Roman Households
2. Greco-Roman Household Codes
3. Pauline Household Codes
1. Greco-Roman Households.
Family units included parents and children, and perhaps grandparents, cousins, slaves, and
freed men and women. The family revolved around the parents, and even more, the oldest male
(father or grandfather). Theoretically, the father had absolute authority over his children, but in
practice, social conventions and pressures mitigated this power, except in one important area:
the father chose whether to raise a child born to his wife (Cicero, Att. 11.9).
Most people married in their late teens or early twenties, were widowed or divorced, and
remarried once or twice. Couples hoped for a harmonious relationship. The *marriage was sine
manu, which meant that authority over the wife was not transferred to the husband by her family,
but the latter retained authority (manus). The woman brought a dowry to the marriage, which
was returned to her if her husband died or they divorced. The wife might have her own sources
of *wealth outside of her husband’s control. Some households were led by women. If a woman
was widowed or divorced, her children were considered part of the husband’s family.
Infant mortality was high, with approximately 50 percent of children dying before their tenth
birthday (Laes, 26). Children were thought to need strict discipline and training, for they lacked
reason. Additionally, their character was established at birth, and circumstances revealed it.
About age seven, children began working in shops or fields, although there is also artwork
portraying children playing with toys (Laes, 22-49). In their early years, slave and free children
were raised together in the home (MacDonald, 36-48). Adult children showed their piety by
caring for their aging parents, a duty second only to honoring the gods.
2. Greco-Roman Household Codes.
2.1. Aristotle’s Household Structure and Social Hierarchy. The household codes (Haustafel, pl.
Haustafeln) grew out of Aristotle’s political theories formed in Athens, which at the time was a
slave economy. Reflecting on the ontology or nature of male, female, child, and slave, Aristotle
argued that the superordinate member of the pair (male, father, slave master) was by nature
superior and better fitted to command (Pol. 1.5.1-2). Free men were distinguished by distinct
virtues such as courage and self-control (Hering, 206); females were by nature inferior in both
the physical and rational sense (Historia animalium 2.3.501b19-21; De partibus animalium
2.7.653a28-29). Thus, the wife showed courage by submitting to her husband (Pol. 1260a).
Aristotle posited that some humans were “natural slaves,” and since nature is good, therefore
the slave and the owner benefit from slavery (Pol. 1252a30-34; 1255a28; Garnsey, 108-27).
Aristotle did not base his opinions of slavery on race or skin color but viewed his Greek culture
as superior and evaluated other ethnic groups as inferior, and thus more likely to be natural
slaves. The slave had minimal virtue and lacked reason; therefore, the owner must rule the
slave absolutely (Eth. nic. 8.11.6-7). Aristotle labeled the slave a human tool whose owner had
despotic power. In contrast, the father was to rule his child benevolently (Pol. 1278b32-37; Eth.
nic. 1161a 30-b6).
2.2. Roman Modification to Aristotle’s Household Structure. Stoic philosophers of the first
century AD focused less on politics and more on *ethics. Musonius Rufus concentrated on the
husband/wife pair, urging husbands to use sexual self-control. A husband should promote
philosophical learning with his wife, so that she could keep the house, be chaste, and forgo
extravagances and passions. Martha Nussbaum cautions that what looks like advocacy for
wives in Musonius Rufus neglects the fact that her virtue is shown only in certain areas of life, in
the domestic sphere, and not in social, political, and cultural arenas where decisions affecting
her would be made (Nussbaum, 302).
Plutarch’s treatise Advice to the Bride and Groom likewise advocates for wives to be taught
*philosophy to mitigate the woman’s natural tendency toward irrationality and passions. Plutarch
modifies Aristotle’s insistence on male superiority and female inferiority but still sees the
husband as the superior “soul” and the wife as the inferior “body” in the union. The harmony and
affection promoted within the marriage is based on the wife accepting her husband’s gods,
friends, and goals (Plutarch, Conjugalia Praecepta).
Seneca looked at the owner/slave pair. He was most interested in fostering an owner’s
self-control and spoke metaphorically about the owner enslaved by his passions. Seneca
rejected Aristotle’s argument of the natural slave and encouraged merciful treatment of slaves to
prevent their uprising (Ben. 3.20.1-2; Contr. 7.6.18; Ep. 123.1-4).
The male owner also had sexual privileges over his male and female slave, and owners often
prostituted their slaves. Social norms frowned on female owners having sex with their slaves.
Slaves might be permitted by their owner to form a marriage of sorts, but the slave “husband”
did not have exclusive sexual privilege, for the slave woman was still sexually available to her
owner and anyone to whom he gave her. Additionally, any children from the slave marriage were
the property of the owner. Owners might use the threat of separation to make the slave couple
work harder. Slaves as young as seven, but typically older, could be used sexually. Art and
poetry testify to this ubiquitous practice; for example, a slave owner wrote a eulogy to his
deceased twelve-year-old slave boy, Glaucias, a sexual favorite, a delicium (Laes, 223-30).
However, no evidence exists that Jewish families or the Christian communities sexually used
slaves (Philo, Abr. 133; Spec. 3, 37-42; Contempl. 60-62; Josephus, Ant. 1.200-201; Ag. Ap.
2.37 §§273-275; Did. 2.2; Barn. 10.8). Scholars debate whether Paul permitted Christian
owners sexual access to their slaves (Glancy, 60; Harper, 87-92).
2.3. Freedmen and Freedwomen. An important social and legal category not reflected in the
household codes is that of the freed man and woman. Slaves could be manumitted, but the
social stain of slavery remained on their character, and they continued to serve their former
owner in the capacity of a client to their patron. Slaves might save money (peculium) to buy their
*freedom, although the money would remain in some sense with the owner, who was now the
patron (Mouritsen, 177-80; 1 Cor 7:22). Female slaves were more typically freed through
marriage to their owner, and they might earn money from gifts for sexual favors (Pomeroy,
195-98). Rarely were agricultural or mining slaves freed; most died on the job.
2.4. Jewish Authors on Marriage and Slavery. Jewish writers weighed in on marriage and
slavery (Hezser, 124-29). Josephus states that Scripture indicates a woman is inferior to her
husband in all things (Ag. Ap. 2.25 §204). Philo of Alexandria analyzed slavery through the lens
of Torah’s teaching on the Sabbath. Slaves and owners were of the same nature (Spec. 2.69;
3.137), and owners “submitted” to do tasks on Sabbath that were regularly done by the slave,
for the slave abstains from work on that day (Spec. 2.66-67).
3. Pauline Household Codes.
At least some of Paul’s churches met in homes (Adams, 10). For example, Paul addresses
Nympha and the Laodicean *church meeting in her home (Col 4:15), and his *coworkers
Priscilla and Aquila held church meetings in their home (1 Cor 16:19). Education and training in
the *gospel message, along with rites of *baptism and the *Lord’s Supper, characterized these
meetings. The familial categories of married/single/widowed, freeborn and slave children, slave
women and men, freedmen and -women, and slave owners shaped the community as much as
their occupational categories or whether they were Jew or *Gentile. For example, when Paul
answers the Corinthians’ questions about marriage, he also mentions the Jew and Gentile (1
Cor 7:18-20), the slave (1 Cor 7:21-24), and daughters (1 Cor 7:36-38). Paul adds another
dimension to the church family, namely, the virgin/celibate adult woman who does not marry but
serves the church community (1 Tim 5:3-16).
3.1. The Context of the Household Codes in Ephesians and Colossians. The household code
structure occurs most directly in Ephesians and Colossians. Scholars offer several reasons for
its inclusion. Some argue the instructions were apologetic, presenting the church as a
nonthreatening group that supported the social status quo (Lincoln, 397). This position assumes
the content of the instructions are in line with the broader cultural norms. Others suggest the
focus is inward as the author instructs the young church in living out the unity in community
established in Christ (Gombis, 176). Scholars debate the authorship of both epistles, but to
avoid the awkwardness of using “the author” or speaking with the passive voice, this article
presents Paul as the author.
Paul introduces his household codes section in Ephesians with a lengthy sentence about being
filled with the *Holy Spirit, expressed by singing psalms, giving thanks, and submitting to each
other out of reverence or *fear (phobos) for *Christ (Eph 5:18-21; see also Col 3:15-17). The
reciprocity reflected in the reciprocal pronoun “one another” (allēlous) and the insistence on
respect being given first to Christ frame the subsequent injunctions for the three pairs within the
household structure.
Paul repeats the title “Christ” throughout the codes, reinforcing Christ as the standard by which
to understand and emulate reverence, *love, and obedience. Colossians focuses throughout the
short letter on Christ as *Lord, with the believer as his *servant (Col 1:7, 23, 25; 4:7, 12). In both
letters, the context of the household codes is the church’s *worship of God and imitation of
Christ’s sacrificial love for his church.
Paul addresses the three pairs that make up the Greco-Roman culture’s conceptual family
structure: husband/wife, parent/child, owner/slave. In each case, he addresses the subordinate
member first, perhaps for two reasons. First, Paul signals his respect for them, for these letters
were read aloud in the churches. Second, Paul wishes to constrain the superordinate’s power
given by society. Paul considers an additional pair, Jew/Gentile, included in the familial structure
as siblings, adopted children of God, co-heirs together in Christ (Eph 2:15-19; see also Gal
3:28; Braxton, 94).
3.2. Husband and Wife. In Ephesians, Paul’s first sentence to wives borrows the participle
submitting from the preceding verse, thereby linking the two verses. Only two other
contemporary examples survive of wives instructed to submit (Plutarch, Conjugalia Praecepta
33; Pseudo-Callisthene 1.22.4). Usually, wives are instructed to obey their husbands. In
Colossians, Paul commands wives to submit themselves to their husbands, using the same verb
“to submit.” Paul draws on the *body metaphor he has used throughout Ephesians to refer to
the husband as the *head of his wife. The metaphorical meaning of the Greek term “head”
(kephalē) is contested. Some argue it reflects “leader” (Grudem, 51). Others suggest “source,”
such as the headwaters of a river (Fee, 502-3). A third position postulates the noun is best
understood as preeminence or as a synecdoche for the whole (Thiselton, 821). A fourth position
connects family, ancestry, and *identity within the metaphor (Westfall, 82-84). A fifth position
argues that the metaphor focuses on “one flesh” unity (Sumner, 167). In using the head/body
figure of speech, Paul opens new ways of understanding Christ and his body, the church, in
which a husband can imagine himself not in terms of *leadership but as loving his wife as Christ
loves the church.
Paul commands husbands three times to love (agapaō) their wives in a self-sacrificial way,
imitating Christ’s love (Eph 5:2, 25; see also Col 3:19). Paul commands the husband to love his
wife as his own body, as he loves himself (Eph 5:28-29; Westfall, 93-94). Such self-sacrifice by
the superordinate member of the pair is strongly countercultural and reflects the mutuality of the
Genesis quotation that husband and wife become one *flesh (see also 1 Cor 7:2-4). The wife is
not subsumed into her husband, but each as individuals join to be one flesh.
3.3. Parent and Child. The instruction for children to obey parents is qualified as “in the Lord”
(Eph 6:1; see Col 3:20). Paul uses a similar phrase when addressing wives, but he does not
stipulate that wives obey their husbands. By mentioning the Lord and citing Scripture (Ex 20:21;
Deut 5:16), Paul circumscribes obedience to those actions that would honor God; Paul does not
condone immoral requests from parents. Musonius Rufus makes a similar distinction; if a father
forbids his son to study philosophy, the son must nevertheless pursue study, for such activity
obeys the gods, which is the son’s higher calling (Musonius Rufus, Discourses 16.30-31,
104-106). Slave children attending church would have an owner, not a father per se, and adults
in the church would serve the surrogate parental role.
Romans encouraged education, and Christian communities followed suit. In the church, slave
children received the same teachings as their free counterparts by fathers, mothers, and
surrogate mothers and fathers. Paul commands fathers to not frustrate (parorgizō) or provoke
(erethizō) their children but instruct them (Eph 6:4; Col 3:21). Paul probably highlights fathers
because society empowered fathers with extensive control over their children during the father’s
lifetime. However, the commandment requires children to honor both father and mother, and
mothers (and grandmothers) educated children, as in the case of Timothy (2 Tim 1:5).
3.4. Owner and Slave. The third set within the household codes is the owner/slave pair. Before
turning to the text, a brief word must be said about the metaphorical use of “slave” in Paul’s
letters. Paul refers to himself as a slave of Christ (Rom 1:1; Phil 1:1; Titus 1:1; see also Jas 1:1,
2 Pet 1:1), drawing on OT images of the faithful Israelite serving God (Num 12:7; Jer 25:4; Ezek
38:17). Paul also describes believers as “slaves” of *righteousness, in contrast to those who are
slaves of *sin (Rom 6:17-18). The metaphor is limited, in that Paul does not imagine God or
Jesus Christ as the typical slave master who is given free rein to dominate their slaves (Harris,
142).
In Ephesians, Paul charges the slave to obey with fear and trembling (Eph 6:5), a phrase that is
best understood as respecting or honoring their human master even as all believers honor or
fear Christ (Eph 5:21; Col 3:22-25; see also Phil 2:12; 1 Cor 2:3; 2 Cor 7:15; 1 Tim 6:1-2). This
verse has been used out of context to condone domestic *violence, much to the church’s shame
(Fowl, 197). As he does with wives, so too in Ephesians 5:22 Paul adds the phrase “as to
Christ” (hōs tō Christō) and does not repeat the verb “to obey” before the phrase, although
some English translations add the verb. With this phrase, Paul stresses that the slave’s actions
provide an opportunity to model Christ to the rest of the church, thereby attaining honor.
Moreover, the slave will gain a reward from God for the good work done (Eph 6:8; Col 3:24-25;
2 Cor 5:10). Having a reward and gaining an inheritance are remarkable promises available to
the Gentile believing slave.
Paul begins his address to the owners in Ephesus with the command to do to slaves the same
things (ta auta, Eph 6:9), which can be translated “in the same way.” Paul could be pointing
owners to emulate the slaves’ wholehearted service (Eph 6:7) or their good deeds (Eph 6:8).
John Chrysostom exegetes the passage as Paul’s exhortation that owners serve their slaves
(Hom. Eph. 6.9; PG 62:157). Similarly, Paul insists to the Colossian owners that they do what is
right and equitable (to dikaion kai tēn isotēta, Col 4:1) to their slaves, a posture that dignifies the
slave in sharp contrast to wider social norms (McKnight).
Not only does the slave represent a model of discipleship for the owner, but the owner’s special
privilege of domination is taken away in Christ. Paul insists that the owner may not threaten the
slave (Eph 6:9). The injunction would include threatening the use of physical force, or the
withholding of food, water, or suitable clothing, or separating a mother from her child, or two
slaves who love each other. Paul provides no exception to this ruling; even the disobedient
slave cannot be threatened. Paul grounds his *teaching in the theological reality that God shows
no favoritism (see also Acts 10:34; Gal 2:6; Col 3:25; Jas 2:1). To the Colossians, Paul points to
the crucified and risen Lord as the master in heaven, who expects his followers to emulate the
self-sacrificial love he displayed on the *cross. Paul lives out these words in his letter to
Philemon, wherein he asks that this owner accept his newly converted slave, Onesimus, as a
brother/sibling in Christ and no longer as a slave (Philem 15-16).
See also COLOSSIANS, LETTER TO THE; EPHESIANS, LETTER TO THE; HEAD; KINSHIP
LANGUAGE IN PAUL; MAN AND WOMAN; MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE, ADULTERY AND
INCEST; SEXUALITY, SEXUAL ETHICS; SLAVE, SLAVERY; VIOLENCE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. Adams, The Earliest Christian Meeting Places: Almost Exclusively
Houses?, LNTS 450 (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2013); B. R. Braxton, No Longer Slaves:
Galatians and African American Experience (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2002); G. D.
Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987); S. E.
Fowl, Ephesians: A Commentary, NTL (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2012); P.
Garnsey, Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1996); J. A. Glancy, Slavery in Early Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); T.
Gombis, The Drama of Ephesians: Participating in the Triumph of God (Downers Grove, IL: IVP
Academic, 2010); W. Grudem, “Does κεφαλή (‘Head’) Mean ‘Source’ or ‘Authority Over’ in
Greek Literature? A Survey of 2336 Examples,” TrinJ ns 6.1 (1985): 38-59; K. Harper, From
Shame to Sin: The Christian Transformation of Sexual Morality in Late Antiquity (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 2013); M. J. Harris, Slave of Christ: A New Testament Metaphor
for Total Devotion to Christ (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999); J. P. Hering, The
Colossian and Ephesian Haustafeln in Theological Contexts: An Analysis of Their Origins,
Relationships, and Message (New York: Lang, 2007); C. Hezser, Jewish Slavery in Antiquity
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); E. Laes, Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders
Within (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); A. T. Lincoln, Ephesians, WBC 42
(Dallas: Word, 1990); M. Y. MacDonald, The Power of Children: The Construction of Families in
the Greco-Roman World (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2014); S. McKnight, The Letter to
the Colossians, NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2018); H. Mouritsen, The Freedman in
the Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); M. C. Nussbaum, “The
Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman,” in The Sleep of Reason:
Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece, ed. M. C. Nussbaum and J. Sihvola
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 283-325; O. Patterson, Slavery and Social Death:
A Comparative Study (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); S. B. Pomeroy,
Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves (New York: Schocken, 1995); S. Sumner, Men and
Women in the Church: Building Consensus on Christian Leadership (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity Press, 2003); A. C. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NIGTC (Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000); C. Westfall, Paul and Gender: Reclaiming the Apostle’s Vision for
Men and Women in Christ (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2016).
L. H. Cohick
**BIBL322WEEK5PART2READING.pdf**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/bibl322week5part2reading-pdf)
**## BIBL322WEEK5DIALOGUE.pdf**
Week 5 Assignment: Letter to the
Roman's Outline Dialogue
For this week's dialogue, please respond to the prompt stated
below. A grading rubric for this assignment can be found in the
"Grades and Progress" section of the main menu. Locate the
assignment and click on "View Rubric."
Use the article below from DPL’s Dictionary of Paul’s Letters:
● “Households and Household Codes”
And select ONE of the prompt questions below:
● What is the specific issue that Paul
addresses in Rome (chs. 14-15)? Be sure
to include specific biblical references from
different sections of Paul’s theological
instruction in chapters 1-13 which support
your understanding of the key issue of the
letter.
(1) Select and read ONE of the assigned articles above from
DPL’s Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. In two developed
paragraphs (minimum of 250 words), present to the class the
key truths and principles that you believe are most interesting
or most helpful for the class to learn from the article that you
read (so that we can learn collectively). At the end of these
paragraphs, cite the article as a bibliographic entry
(“article/chapter in an edited book”). No need for footnotes or
references in this section.
(2) Choose and answer ONE of the prompt questions above
based on your reading (cite your textbook or outside sources).
Write at least two developed, cohesive paragraphs and
incorporate specific detail, 3rd person, and support (minimum
of 250 words). Cite your source(s) each time they are used.
Include at least three scholarly sources (textbooks and/or
outside scholarly sources). See the rubric requirements for
grading guidelines.
– Week 5 Assignment: Letter to the Roman's Outline Dialogue
– For this week's dialogue, please respond to the prompt stated below. A grading rubric for this assignment can be found in the "Grades and Progress" section of the main menu. Locate the assignment and click on "View Rubric."
**## BIBL322WEEK5PART1READING.pdf**
HOUSEHOLDS AND HOUSEHOLD CODES
The household during the early Roman imperial period played a central part in the economic,
cultural, political, and religious life of the society. Aristotle’s theories of the family and polis (Pol.
1253b) reflected and shaped social reality, and his ideas, broadly speaking, influenced the
Greco-Roman world. Imperial Rome emphasized the Roman family as foundational to the
imperial power base. Three pairs of superordinate/subordinate groups formed the theoretical
family: husband/wife, father/child, and owner/*slave. The highly stratified culture found
representation in the hierarchically ordered family structure that emphasized cohesion, but at
the expense of the subordinate members. While *women and freeborn children had some legal
protections and agency, slaves lacked social honor and had no legal family or inheritance and
few legal protections; their life could be described as “social death” (Patterson, 38).
1. Greco-Roman Households
2. Greco-Roman Household Codes
3. Pauline Household Codes
1. Greco-Roman Households.
Family units included parents and children, and perhaps grandparents, cousins, slaves, and
freed men and women. The family revolved around the parents, and even more, the oldest male
(father or grandfather). Theoretically, the father had absolute authority over his children, but in
practice, social conventions and pressures mitigated this power, except in one important area:
the father chose whether to raise a child born to his wife (Cicero, Att. 11.9).
Most people married in their late teens or early twenties, were widowed or divorced, and
remarried once or twice. Couples hoped for a harmonious relationship. The *marriage was sine
manu, which meant that authority over the wife was not transferred to the husband by her family,
but the latter retained authority (manus). The woman brought a dowry to the marriage, which
was returned to her if her husband died or they divorced. The wife might have her own sources
of *wealth outside of her husband’s control. Some households were led by women. If a woman
was widowed or divorced, her children were considered part of the husband’s family.
Infant mortality was high, with approximately 50 percent of children dying before their tenth
birthday (Laes, 26). Children were thought to need strict discipline and training, for they lacked
reason. Additionally, their character was established at birth, and circumstances revealed it.
About age seven, children began working in shops or fields, although there is also artwork
portraying children playing with toys (Laes, 22-49). In their early years, slave and free children
were raised together in the home (MacDonald, 36-48). Adult children showed their piety by
caring for their aging parents, a duty second only to honoring the gods.
2. Greco-Roman Household Codes.
2.1. Aristotle’s Household Structure and Social Hierarchy. The household codes (Haustafel, pl.
Haustafeln) grew out of Aristotle’s political theories formed in Athens, which at the time was a
slave economy. Reflecting on the ontology or nature of male, female, child, and slave, Aristotle
argued that the superordinate member of the pair (male, father, slave master) was by nature
superior and better fitted to command (Pol. 1.5.1-2). Free men were distinguished by distinct
virtues such as courage and self-control (Hering, 206); females were by nature inferior in both
the physical and rational sense (Historia animalium 2.3.501b19-21; De partibus animalium
2.7.653a28-29). Thus, the wife showed courage by submitting to her husband (Pol. 1260a).
Aristotle posited that some humans were “natural slaves,” and since nature is good, therefore
the slave and the owner benefit from slavery (Pol. 1252a30-34; 1255a28; Garnsey, 108-27).
Aristotle did not base his opinions of slavery on race or skin color but viewed his Greek culture
as superior and evaluated other ethnic groups as inferior, and thus more likely to be natural
slaves. The slave had minimal virtue and lacked reason; therefore, the owner must rule the
slave absolutely (Eth. nic. 8.11.6-7). Aristotle labeled the slave a human tool whose owner had
despotic power. In contrast, the father was to rule his child benevolently (Pol. 1278b32-37; Eth.
nic. 1161a 30-b6).
2.2. Roman Modification to Aristotle’s Household Structure. Stoic philosophers of the first
century AD focused less on politics and more on *ethics. Musonius Rufus concentrated on the
husband/wife pair, urging husbands to use sexual self-control. A husband should promote
philosophical learning with his wife, so that she could keep the house, be chaste, and forgo
extravagances and passions. Martha Nussbaum cautions that what looks like advocacy for
wives in Musonius Rufus neglects the fact that her virtue is shown only in certain areas of life, in
the domestic sphere, and not in social, political, and cultural arenas where decisions affecting
her would be made (Nussbaum, 302).
Plutarch’s treatise Advice to the Bride and Groom likewise advocates for wives to be taught
*philosophy to mitigate the woman’s natural tendency toward irrationality and passions. Plutarch
modifies Aristotle’s insistence on male superiority and female inferiority but still sees the
husband as the superior “soul” and the wife as the inferior “body” in the union. The harmony and
affection promoted within the marriage is based on the wife accepting her husband’s gods,
friends, and goals (Plutarch, Conjugalia Praecepta).
Seneca looked at the owner/slave pair. He was most interested in fostering an owner’s
self-control and spoke metaphorically about the owner enslaved by his passions. Seneca
rejected Aristotle’s argument of the natural slave and encouraged merciful treatment of slaves to
prevent their uprising (Ben. 3.20.1-2; Contr. 7.6.18; Ep. 123.1-4).
The male owner also had sexual privileges over his male and female slave, and owners often
prostituted their slaves. Social norms frowned on female owners having sex with their slaves.
Slaves might be permitted by their owner to form a marriage of sorts, but the slave “husband”
did not have exclusive sexual privilege, for the slave woman was still sexually available to her
owner and anyone to whom he gave her. Additionally, any children from the slave marriage were
the property of the owner. Owners might use the threat of separation to make the slave couple
work harder. Slaves as young as seven, but typically older, could be used sexually. Art and
poetry testify to this ubiquitous practice; for example, a slave owner wrote a eulogy to his
deceased twelve-year-old slave boy, Glaucias, a sexual favorite, a delicium (Laes, 223-30).
However, no evidence exists that Jewish families or the Christian communities sexually used
slaves (Philo, Abr. 133; Spec. 3, 37-42; Contempl. 60-62; Josephus, Ant. 1.200-201; Ag. Ap.
2.37 §§273-275; Did. 2.2; Barn. 10.8). Scholars debate whether Paul permitted Christian
owners sexual access to their slaves (Glancy, 60; Harper, 87-92).
2.3. Freedmen and Freedwomen. An important social and legal category not reflected in the
household codes is that of the freed man and woman. Slaves could be manumitted, but the
social stain of slavery remained on their character, and they continued to serve their former
owner in the capacity of a client to their patron. Slaves might save money (peculium) to buy their
*freedom, although the money would remain in some sense with the owner, who was now the
patron (Mouritsen, 177-80; 1 Cor 7:22). Female slaves were more typically freed through
marriage to their owner, and they might earn money from gifts for sexual favors (Pomeroy,
195-98). Rarely were agricultural or mining slaves freed; most died on the job.
2.4. Jewish Authors on Marriage and Slavery. Jewish writers weighed in on marriage and
slavery (Hezser, 124-29). Josephus states that Scripture indicates a woman is inferior to her
husband in all things (Ag. Ap. 2.25 §204). Philo of Alexandria analyzed slavery through the lens
of Torah’s teaching on the Sabbath. Slaves and owners were of the same nature (Spec. 2.69;
3.137), and owners “submitted” to do tasks on Sabbath that were regularly done by the slave,
for the slave abstains from work on that day (Spec. 2.66-67).
3. Pauline Household Codes.
At least some of Paul’s churches met in homes (Adams, 10). For example, Paul addresses
Nympha and the Laodicean *church meeting in her home (Col 4:15), and his *coworkers
Priscilla and Aquila held church meetings in their home (1 Cor 16:19). Education and training in
the *gospel message, along with rites of *baptism and the *Lord’s Supper, characterized these
meetings. The familial categories of married/single/widowed, freeborn and slave children, slave
women and men, freedmen and -women, and slave owners shaped the community as much as
their occupational categories or whether they were Jew or *Gentile. For example, when Paul
answers the Corinthians’ questions about marriage, he also mentions the Jew and Gentile (1
Cor 7:18-20), the slave (1 Cor 7:21-24), and daughters (1 Cor 7:36-38). Paul adds another
dimension to the church family, namely, the virgin/celibate adult woman who does not marry but
serves the church community (1 Tim 5:3-16).
3.1. The Context of the Household Codes in Ephesians and Colossians. The household code
structure occurs most directly in Ephesians and Colossians. Scholars offer several reasons for
its inclusion. Some argue the instructions were apologetic, presenting the church as a
nonthreatening group that supported the social status quo (Lincoln, 397). This position assumes
the content of the instructions are in line with the broader cultural norms. Others suggest the
focus is inward as the author instructs the young church in living out the unity in community
established in Christ (Gombis, 176). Scholars debate the authorship of both epistles, but to
avoid the awkwardness of using “the author” or speaking with the passive voice, this article
presents Paul as the author.
Paul introduces his household codes section in Ephesians with a lengthy sentence about being
filled with the *Holy Spirit, expressed by singing psalms, giving thanks, and submitting to each
other out of reverence or *fear (phobos) for *Christ (Eph 5:18-21; see also Col 3:15-17). The
reciprocity reflected in the reciprocal pronoun “one another” (allēlous) and the insistence on
respect being given first to Christ frame the subsequent injunctions for the three pairs within the
household structure.
Paul repeats the title “Christ” throughout the codes, reinforcing Christ as the standard by which
to understand and emulate reverence, *love, and obedience. Colossians focuses throughout the
short letter on Christ as *Lord, with the believer as his *servant (Col 1:7, 23, 25; 4:7, 12). In both
letters, the context of the household codes is the church’s *worship of God and imitation of
Christ’s sacrificial love for his church.
Paul addresses the three pairs that make up the Greco-Roman culture’s conceptual family
structure: husband/wife, parent/child, owner/slave. In each case, he addresses the subordinate
member first, perhaps for two reasons. First, Paul signals his respect for them, for these letters
were read aloud in the churches. Second, Paul wishes to constrain the superordinate’s power
given by society. Paul considers an additional pair, Jew/Gentile, included in the familial structure
as siblings, adopted children of God, co-heirs together in Christ (Eph 2:15-19; see also Gal
3:28; Braxton, 94).
3.2. Husband and Wife. In Ephesians, Paul’s first sentence to wives borrows the participle
submitting from the preceding verse, thereby linking the two verses. Only two other
contemporary examples survive of wives instructed to submit (Plutarch, Conjugalia Praecepta
33; Pseudo-Callisthene 1.22.4). Usually, wives are instructed to obey their husbands. In
Colossians, Paul commands wives to submit themselves to their husbands, using the same verb
“to submit.” Paul draws on the *body metaphor he has used throughout Ephesians to refer to
the husband as the *head of his wife. The metaphorical meaning of the Greek term “head”
(kephalē) is contested. Some argue it reflects “leader” (Grudem, 51). Others suggest “source,”
such as the headwaters of a river (Fee, 502-3). A third position postulates the noun is best
understood as preeminence or as a synecdoche for the whole (Thiselton, 821). A fourth position
connects family, ancestry, and *identity within the metaphor (Westfall, 82-84). A fifth position
argues that the metaphor focuses on “one flesh” unity (Sumner, 167). In using the head/body
figure of speech, Paul opens new ways of understanding Christ and his body, the church, in
which a husband can imagine himself not in terms of *leadership but as loving his wife as Christ
loves the church.
Paul commands husbands three times to love (agapaō) their wives in a self-sacrificial way,
imitating Christ’s love (Eph 5:2, 25; see also Col 3:19). Paul commands the husband to love his
wife as his own body, as he loves himself (Eph 5:28-29; Westfall, 93-94). Such self-sacrifice by
the superordinate member of the pair is strongly countercultural and reflects the mutuality of the
Genesis quotation that husband and wife become one *flesh (see also 1 Cor 7:2-4). The wife is
not subsumed into her husband, but each as individuals join to be one flesh.
3.3. Parent and Child. The instruction for children to obey parents is qualified as “in the Lord”
(Eph 6:1; see Col 3:20). Paul uses a similar phrase when addressing wives, but he does not
stipulate that wives obey their husbands. By mentioning the Lord and citing Scripture (Ex 20:21;
Deut 5:16), Paul circumscribes obedience to those actions that would honor God; Paul does not
condone immoral requests from parents. Musonius Rufus makes a similar distinction; if a father
forbids his son to study philosophy, the son must nevertheless pursue study, for such activity
obeys the gods, which is the son’s higher calling (Musonius Rufus, Discourses 16.30-31,
104-106). Slave children attending church would have an owner, not a father per se, and adults
in the church would serve the surrogate parental role.
Romans encouraged education, and Christian communities followed suit. In the church, slave
children received the same teachings as their free counterparts by fathers, mothers, and
surrogate mothers and fathers. Paul commands fathers to not frustrate (parorgizō) or provoke
(erethizō) their children but instruct them (Eph 6:4; Col 3:21). Paul probably highlights fathers
because society empowered fathers with extensive control over their children during the father’s
lifetime. However, the commandment requires children to honor both father and mother, and
mothers (and grandmothers) educated children, as in the case of Timothy (2 Tim 1:5).
3.4. Owner and Slave. The third set within the household codes is the owner/slave pair. Before
turning to the text, a brief word must be said about the metaphorical use of “slave” in Paul’s
letters. Paul refers to himself as a slave of Christ (Rom 1:1; Phil 1:1; Titus 1:1; see also Jas 1:1,
2 Pet 1:1), drawing on OT images of the faithful Israelite serving God (Num 12:7; Jer 25:4; Ezek
38:17). Paul also describes believers as “slaves” of *righteousness, in contrast to those who are
slaves of *sin (Rom 6:17-18). The metaphor is limited, in that Paul does not imagine God or
Jesus Christ as the typical slave master who is given free rein to dominate their slaves (Harris,
142).
In Ephesians, Paul charges the slave to obey with fear and trembling (Eph 6:5), a phrase that is
best understood as respecting or honoring their human master even as all believers honor or
fear Christ (Eph 5:21; Col 3:22-25; see also Phil 2:12; 1 Cor 2:3; 2 Cor 7:15; 1 Tim 6:1-2). This
verse has been used out of context to condone domestic *violence, much to the church’s shame
(Fowl, 197). As he does with wives, so too in Ephesians 5:22 Paul adds the phrase “as to
Christ” (hōs tō Christō) and does not repeat the verb “to obey” before the phrase, although
some English translations add the verb. With this phrase, Paul stresses that the slave’s actions
provide an opportunity to model Christ to the rest of the church, thereby attaining honor.
Moreover, the slave will gain a reward from God for the good work done (Eph 6:8; Col 3:24-25;
2 Cor 5:10). Having a reward and gaining an inheritance are remarkable promises available to
the Gentile believing slave.
Paul begins his address to the owners in Ephesus with the command to do to slaves the same
things (ta auta, Eph 6:9), which can be translated “in the same way.” Paul could be pointing
owners to emulate the slaves’ wholehearted service (Eph 6:7) or their good deeds (Eph 6:8).
John Chrysostom exegetes the passage as Paul’s exhortation that owners serve their slaves
(Hom. Eph. 6.9; PG 62:157). Similarly, Paul insists to the Colossian owners that they do what is
right and equitable (to dikaion kai tēn isotēta, Col 4:1) to their slaves, a posture that dignifies the
slave in sharp contrast to wider social norms (McKnight).
Not only does the slave represent a model of discipleship for the owner, but the owner’s special
privilege of domination is taken away in Christ. Paul insists that the owner may not threaten the
slave (Eph 6:9). The injunction would include threatening the use of physical force, or the
withholding of food, water, or suitable clothing, or separating a mother from her child, or two
slaves who love each other. Paul provides no exception to this ruling; even the disobedient
slave cannot be threatened. Paul grounds his *teaching in the theological reality that God shows
no favoritism (see also Acts 10:34; Gal 2:6; Col 3:25; Jas 2:1). To the Colossians, Paul points to
the crucified and risen Lord as the master in heaven, who expects his followers to emulate the
self-sacrificial love he displayed on the *cross. Paul lives out these words in his letter to
Philemon, wherein he asks that this owner accept his newly converted slave, Onesimus, as a
brother/sibling in Christ and no longer as a slave (Philem 15-16).
See also COLOSSIANS, LETTER TO THE; EPHESIANS, LETTER TO THE; HEAD; KINSHIP
LANGUAGE IN PAUL; MAN AND WOMAN; MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE, ADULTERY AND
INCEST; SEXUALITY, SEXUAL ETHICS; SLAVE, SLAVERY; VIOLENCE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. Adams, The Earliest Christian Meeting Places: Almost Exclusively
Houses?, LNTS 450 (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2013); B. R. Braxton, No Longer Slaves:
Galatians and African American Experience (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2002); G. D.
Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987); S. E.
Fowl, Ephesians: A Commentary, NTL (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2012); P.
Garnsey, Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1996); J. A. Glancy, Slavery in Early Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); T.
Gombis, The Drama of Ephesians: Participating in the Triumph of God (Downers Grove, IL: IVP
Academic, 2010); W. Grudem, “Does κεφαλή (‘Head’) Mean ‘Source’ or ‘Authority Over’ in
Greek Literature? A Survey of 2336 Examples,” TrinJ ns 6.1 (1985): 38-59; K. Harper, From
Shame to Sin: The Christian Transformation of Sexual Morality in Late Antiquity (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 2013); M. J. Harris, Slave of Christ: A New Testament Metaphor
for Total Devotion to Christ (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999); J. P. Hering, The
Colossian and Ephesian Haustafeln in Theological Contexts: An Analysis of Their Origins,
Relationships, and Message (New York: Lang, 2007); C. Hezser, Jewish Slavery in Antiquity
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); E. Laes, Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders
Within (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); A. T. Lincoln, Ephesians, WBC 42
(Dallas: Word, 1990); M. Y. MacDonald, The Power of Children: The Construction of Families in
the Greco-Roman World (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2014); S. McKnight, The Letter to
the Colossians, NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2018); H. Mouritsen, The Freedman in
the Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); M. C. Nussbaum, “The
Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman,” in The Sleep of Reason:
Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece, ed. M. C. Nussbaum and J. Sihvola
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 283-325; O. Patterson, Slavery and Social Death:
A Comparative Study (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); S. B. Pomeroy,
Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves (New York: Schocken, 1995); S. Sumner, Men and
Women in the Church: Building Consensus on Christian Leadership (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity Press, 2003); A. C. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NIGTC (Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000); C. Westfall, Paul and Gender: Reclaiming the Apostle’s Vision for
Men and Women in Christ (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2016).
L. H. Cohick
**BIBL322WEEK5PART2READING.pdf**
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see attached and read all documents please. **files (3)** – ## BIBL322WEEK5ROUGHDRAFT.pdf – ## BIBL322Handout–DirectionsforExegeticalPaperforPaulinePassage2024.pdf – ExegeticalPaperTopic.pdf **## BIBL322WEEK5ROUGHDRAFT.pdf** Rough Draft—submit a rough draft of approximately 6 pages of the body of t…
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**files (3)**
– ## BIBL322WEEK5ROUGHDRAFT.pdf
– ## BIBL322Handout–DirectionsforExegeticalPaperforPaulinePassage2024.pdf
– ExegeticalPaperTopic.pdf
**## BIBL322WEEK5ROUGHDRAFT.pdf**
Rough Draft—submit a rough draft of approximately 6 pages of the body of
the paper which evidences relevant scholarly research (include the thesis
sentence and bibliography).
**## BIBL322Handout–DirectionsforExegeticalPaperforPaulinePassage2024.pdf**
Interpretation Paper — BIBL 322 (Wallace)
Length: 9-10 pages (double-spaced, New Times Roman 12 pt. font)
Due date: see syllabus for due date.
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to effectively interpret a biblical passage in one of Paul’s
letters and recognize relevant theological truths from the passage.
Directions: After praying and asking God for wisdom, choose a passage in one of Paul’s letters
that interests you of approximately 5-12 verses. Up to this point in the course, you have already
completed the basic exegetical steps for interpreting a passage. You have read most of the Paul’s
letters, answered relevant questions concerning Paul’s theology and context, and gained insight
into the historical, cultural, and theological background of Paul through your reading and
quizzes.
Now you are ready to take additional general interpretive steps for the paper. First, read your
chosen passage several times, jotting down observations and questions (about the author,
audience, purpose, tone, key words, difficulties, etc.). Second, divide the passage into “units of
thought” (similar to contemporary paragraphs), be aware of Paul’s thought rhymes and contrasts,
and decide which of these “units of thought” (sections) of your chosen passage will be the
primary focus of the paper (these divisions may also help in coming up with sub-headings for
your paper for the interpretive section). Third, when reading, use different translations and
available scholarly Bible study tools in determining the significant words and phrases of the
passage.
Once you have determined the specific passage and its divisions and have interacted with the text
in asking relevant questions, follow the steps below to gather detailed notes for writing the body
of your paper:
A. Consider how the chosen passage fits within the overall flow of the book, particularly the
preceding and following passages (when writing your paper, keep this information to about two
paragraphs).
o How does this passage relate to the author’s overall purpose?
o What overall theological emphases of the letter might contribute to a better
understanding of the meaning of the chosen passage?
B. Research the cultural-historical background of the passage (consult Commentaries and relevant
Bible Dictionaries or helpful background books such as the IVP Biblical Background Commentary
by Craig Keener).
C. Make note of any literary devices and their function in the passage.
D. For key sentences of the passage, analyze the grammar and function (consult exegetical
commentaries or a Greek Grammar).
E. Analyze key words/phrases of the passage:
a. Determine the range of meaning that the author may have intended by (1) consulting
other translations and relevant lexicons (BDAG preferred) and (2) see how the author
used these key words elsewhere in the letter.
b. Consider how this word used in other books of the New Testament or Old Testament
(LXX).
c. If relevant, consider how this word is used in Greco-Roman culture.
d. Based on the above analysis, decide on authorial intent and meaning for the significant
word(s) and phrase(s).
F. Investigate how the theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to biblical and theological
teaching in Paul.
a. Investigate how the theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to biblical and
theological teaching in the letter.
b. Consider how the theological concepts of the chosen passage might relate to biblical
and theological teaching elsewhere in Paul’s letters.
G. Draw out two or more theological truths from the passage—be specific and clear.
H. Apply these truths to a relevant and practical issue in ministry
When you have completed gathering relevant notes in the above steps, you are now ready to
organize and write your paper. (It is likely that students will gather more information than five
pages. A good paper will do this and allow for editing, reducing, and revising so the information
is written cohesively with clarity.)
• Introduction (in one paragraph gain attention in a relevant manner, and at the end of the
paragraph write a one-sentence thematic thesis sentence).
• Body of the Paper
Interpretation (6 pages)
– Explain how this passage fits within the overall flow of the letter, particularly in
relation to the theological flow of the letter (Step A—keep this part to less than a
page)
– Explain the meaning of the passage, specifically what the author intended his
reader(s) to understand “then” in the first century context (organize the information
from steps B thru E based on the internal divisions of the passage—6 or more
pages).
Theological Truths (3 pages)
– Incorporate information from steps F and G—dedicate at 3 pages on how the
theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to biblical and theological
teaching within the letter
– In one page, explain how the theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to
biblical and theological teaching elsewhere in Paul’s letters.
Application (1/2 to 1 page)
– Apply one or more of the theological truths to a practical ministry situation today.
– Or apply one or more of the theological truths to the believer’s life and Christian
practice
• Conclusion (in one or two paragraphs, restate the main ideas of paper without adding new
information)
• Bibliography (at least 10 scholarly sources—include two exegetical commentaries and three or
more scholarly journal articles).
Grading Criteria
Content (65%) – degree to which the paper adequately interprets a passage in one of
Paul’s letters (engaging in scholarly research and evidencing the above exegetical
steps), contributes to a better understanding of Paul’s theological emphasis of the
passage in his letter, and applies key theological truths to a contemporary
situation.
Grammar and style (25%) – degree to which the paper is free of errors, well organized,
written with cohesive paragraphs, appropriate for the university level.
Formatting (10%) – degree to which the paper utilizes scholarly sources and follows the
conventions for citing sources (Turabian style unless student receives approval to
use APA).
**ExegeticalPaperTopic.pdf**
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**ExegeticalPaperTopic.pdf**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/exegeticalpapertopic-pdf-10607305)
**## BIBL322WEEK5ROUGHDRAFT.pdf**
Rough Draft—submit a rough draft of approximately 6 pages of the body of
the paper which evidences relevant scholarly research (include the thesis
sentence and bibliography).
**## BIBL322Handout–DirectionsforExegeticalPaperforPaulinePassage2024.pdf**
Interpretation Paper — BIBL 322 (Wallace)
Length: 9-10 pages (double-spaced, New Times Roman 12 pt. font)
Due date: see syllabus for due date.
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to effectively interpret a biblical passage in one of Paul’s
letters and recognize relevant theological truths from the passage.
Directions: After praying and asking God for wisdom, choose a passage in one of Paul’s letters
that interests you of approximately 5-12 verses. Up to this point in the course, you have already
completed the basic exegetical steps for interpreting a passage. You have read most of the Paul’s
letters, answered relevant questions concerning Paul’s theology and context, and gained insight
into the historical, cultural, and theological background of Paul through your reading and
quizzes.
Now you are ready to take additional general interpretive steps for the paper. First, read your
chosen passage several times, jotting down observations and questions (about the author,
audience, purpose, tone, key words, difficulties, etc.). Second, divide the passage into “units of
thought” (similar to contemporary paragraphs), be aware of Paul’s thought rhymes and contrasts,
and decide which of these “units of thought” (sections) of your chosen passage will be the
primary focus of the paper (these divisions may also help in coming up with sub-headings for
your paper for the interpretive section). Third, when reading, use different translations and
available scholarly Bible study tools in determining the significant words and phrases of the
passage.
Once you have determined the specific passage and its divisions and have interacted with the text
in asking relevant questions, follow the steps below to gather detailed notes for writing the body
of your paper:
A. Consider how the chosen passage fits within the overall flow of the book, particularly the
preceding and following passages (when writing your paper, keep this information to about two
paragraphs).
o How does this passage relate to the author’s overall purpose?
o What overall theological emphases of the letter might contribute to a better
understanding of the meaning of the chosen passage?
B. Research the cultural-historical background of the passage (consult Commentaries and relevant
Bible Dictionaries or helpful background books such as the IVP Biblical Background Commentary
by Craig Keener).
C. Make note of any literary devices and their function in the passage.
D. For key sentences of the passage, analyze the grammar and function (consult exegetical
commentaries or a Greek Grammar).
E. Analyze key words/phrases of the passage:
a. Determine the range of meaning that the author may have intended by (1) consulting
other translations and relevant lexicons (BDAG preferred) and (2) see how the author
used these key words elsewhere in the letter.
b. Consider how this word used in other books of the New Testament or Old Testament
(LXX).
c. If relevant, consider how this word is used in Greco-Roman culture.
d. Based on the above analysis, decide on authorial intent and meaning for the significant
word(s) and phrase(s).
F. Investigate how the theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to biblical and theological
teaching in Paul.
a. Investigate how the theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to biblical and
theological teaching in the letter.
b. Consider how the theological concepts of the chosen passage might relate to biblical
and theological teaching elsewhere in Paul’s letters.
G. Draw out two or more theological truths from the passage—be specific and clear.
H. Apply these truths to a relevant and practical issue in ministry
When you have completed gathering relevant notes in the above steps, you are now ready to
organize and write your paper. (It is likely that students will gather more information than five
pages. A good paper will do this and allow for editing, reducing, and revising so the information
is written cohesively with clarity.)
• Introduction (in one paragraph gain attention in a relevant manner, and at the end of the
paragraph write a one-sentence thematic thesis sentence).
• Body of the Paper
Interpretation (6 pages)
– Explain how this passage fits within the overall flow of the letter, particularly in
relation to the theological flow of the letter (Step A—keep this part to less than a
page)
– Explain the meaning of the passage, specifically what the author intended his
reader(s) to understand “then” in the first century context (organize the information
from steps B thru E based on the internal divisions of the passage—6 or more
pages).
Theological Truths (3 pages)
– Incorporate information from steps F and G—dedicate at 3 pages on how the
theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to biblical and theological
teaching within the letter
– In one page, explain how the theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to
biblical and theological teaching elsewhere in Paul’s letters.
Application (1/2 to 1 page)
– Apply one or more of the theological truths to a practical ministry situation today.
– Or apply one or more of the theological truths to the believer’s life and Christian
practice
• Conclusion (in one or two paragraphs, restate the main ideas of paper without adding new
information)
• Bibliography (at least 10 scholarly sources—include two exegetical commentaries and three or
more scholarly journal articles).
Grading Criteria
Content (65%) – degree to which the paper adequately interprets a passage in one of
Paul’s letters (engaging in scholarly research and evidencing the above exegetical
steps), contributes to a better understanding of Paul’s theological emphasis of the
passage in his letter, and applies key theological truths to a contemporary
situation.
Grammar and style (25%) – degree to which the paper is free of errors, well organized,
written with cohesive paragraphs, appropriate for the university level.
Formatting (10%) – degree to which the paper utilizes scholarly sources and follows the
conventions for citing sources (Turabian style unless student receives approval to
use APA).
**ExegeticalPaperTopic.pdf**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/exegeticalpapertopic-pdf-10607305)
**## BIBL322WEEK5ROUGHDRAFT.pdf**
Rough Draft—submit a rough draft of approximately 6 pages of the body of
the paper which evidences relevant scholarly research (include the thesis
sentence and bibliography).
**## BIBL322Handout–DirectionsforExegeticalPaperforPaulinePassage2024.pdf**
Interpretation Paper — BIBL 322 (Wallace)
Length: 9-10 pages (double-spaced, New Times Roman 12 pt. font)
Due date: see syllabus for due date.
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to effectively interpret a biblical passage in one of Paul’s
letters and recognize relevant theological truths from the passage.
Directions: After praying and asking God for wisdom, choose a passage in one of Paul’s letters
that interests you of approximately 5-12 verses. Up to this point in the course, you have already
completed the basic exegetical steps for interpreting a passage. You have read most of the Paul’s
letters, answered relevant questions concerning Paul’s theology and context, and gained insight
into the historical, cultural, and theological background of Paul through your reading and
quizzes.
Now you are ready to take additional general interpretive steps for the paper. First, read your
chosen passage several times, jotting down observations and questions (about the author,
audience, purpose, tone, key words, difficulties, etc.). Second, divide the passage into “units of
thought” (similar to contemporary paragraphs), be aware of Paul’s thought rhymes and contrasts,
and decide which of these “units of thought” (sections) of your chosen passage will be the
primary focus of the paper (these divisions may also help in coming up with sub-headings for
your paper for the interpretive section). Third, when reading, use different translations and
available scholarly Bible study tools in determining the significant words and phrases of the
passage.
Once you have determined the specific passage and its divisions and have interacted with the text
in asking relevant questions, follow the steps below to gather detailed notes for writing the body
of your paper:
A. Consider how the chosen passage fits within the overall flow of the book, particularly the
preceding and following passages (when writing your paper, keep this information to about two
paragraphs).
o How does this passage relate to the author’s overall purpose?
o What overall theological emphases of the letter might contribute to a better
understanding of the meaning of the chosen passage?
B. Research the cultural-historical background of the passage (consult Commentaries and relevant
Bible Dictionaries or helpful background books such as the IVP Biblical Background Commentary
by Craig Keener).
C. Make note of any literary devices and their function in the passage.
D. For key sentences of the passage, analyze the grammar and function (consult exegetical
commentaries or a Greek Grammar).
E. Analyze key words/phrases of the passage:
a. Determine the range of meaning that the author may have intended by (1) consulting
other translations and relevant lexicons (BDAG preferred) and (2) see how the author
used these key words elsewhere in the letter.
b. Consider how this word used in other books of the New Testament or Old Testament
(LXX).
c. If relevant, consider how this word is used in Greco-Roman culture.
d. Based on the above analysis, decide on authorial intent and meaning for the significant
word(s) and phrase(s).
F. Investigate how the theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to biblical and theological
teaching in Paul.
a. Investigate how the theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to biblical and
theological teaching in the letter.
b. Consider how the theological concepts of the chosen passage might relate to biblical
and theological teaching elsewhere in Paul’s letters.
G. Draw out two or more theological truths from the passage—be specific and clear.
H. Apply these truths to a relevant and practical issue in ministry
When you have completed gathering relevant notes in the above steps, you are now ready to
organize and write your paper. (It is likely that students will gather more information than five
pages. A good paper will do this and allow for editing, reducing, and revising so the information
is written cohesively with clarity.)
• Introduction (in one paragraph gain attention in a relevant manner, and at the end of the
paragraph write a one-sentence thematic thesis sentence).
• Body of the Paper
Interpretation (6 pages)
– Explain how this passage fits within the overall flow of the letter, particularly in
relation to the theological flow of the letter (Step A—keep this part to less than a
page)
– Explain the meaning of the passage, specifically what the author intended his
reader(s) to understand “then” in the first century context (organize the information
from steps B thru E based on the internal divisions of the passage—6 or more
pages).
Theological Truths (3 pages)
– Incorporate information from steps F and G—dedicate at 3 pages on how the
theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to biblical and theological
teaching within the letter
– In one page, explain how the theological concepts of the chosen passage relate to
biblical and theological teaching elsewhere in Paul’s letters.
Application (1/2 to 1 page)
– Apply one or more of the theological truths to a practical ministry situation today.
– Or apply one or more of the theological truths to the believer’s life and Christian
practice
• Conclusion (in one or two paragraphs, restate the main ideas of paper without adding new
information)
• Bibliography (at least 10 scholarly sources—include two exegetical commentaries and three or
more scholarly journal articles).
Grading Criteria
Content (65%) – degree to which the paper adequately interprets a passage in one of
Paul’s letters (engaging in scholarly research and evidencing the above exegetical
steps), contributes to a better understanding of Paul’s theological emphasis of the
passage in his letter, and applies key theological truths to a contemporary
situation.
Grammar and style (25%) – degree to which the paper is free of errors, well organized,
written with cohesive paragraphs, appropriate for the university level.
Formatting (10%) – degree to which the paper utilizes scholarly sources and follows the
conventions for citing sources (Turabian style unless student receives approval to
use APA).
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For this week's group dialogue, please respond to the prompt stated below, along with
two replies to fellow students. A grading rubric for this assignment can be found by
clicking on the three vertical dots above right and clicking on "Show Rubric."
For this week's discussion forum, reflect on what you have learned thus far in this
course about the Pentateuch. Be sure to provide clear explanations as well as
biblical references wherever appropriate. Please avoid discussing Genesis 1 in this
post since we have already discussed that chapter previously.
**## BIBLE282WEEK7READING.pdf**
AN OVERVIEW
The Torah is sometimes conceived as a single work, the Torah scroll. Messiah called it the “book
of Moses” in Mark 12:26. This single work, the Torah, is comprised of five “books,” hence,
“Pentateuch” (see Blenkinsopp, 42–47; Childs, 128–32). It is viable to study each book of the
Torah as well as the Torah as a whole (see Fox, “Can?,” 31–40; Rendtorff, 22–35). The five
books constitute a serial narrative—the Torah story.
In what sense is the Torah five books and in what sense is it one story?
The name of each of the five books captures some sense of the book itself. The traditional
Hebrew names derive from the opening words of the respective books, and the traditional
Christian names are each based on some aspect of the content of the books. The Christian
names come from the Septuagint, the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures.
“In the beginning” (the traditional name from the Hebrew word bereshit)
Genesis (meaning “origin”) is taken from 2:4 in the Septuagint: “This is the book of the genesis
of heaven and earth” (LXX lit.).
“These are the names” (shemot)
Exodus is named for Israel’s liberation from slavery and departure from Egypt, the narrative of
which is presented in the first part of the book.
“And he called” (vayyiqra)
Leviticus has nothing to do with the Levites. In the ancient Hellenistic world “Levites” meant
priests, and the name was given to the third book of the Torah, which presents instructions for
the priests and people (see Milgrom, 1).
“In the wilderness” (bemidbar)
Numbers is named for the censuses in the book (see Num 1 and 26).
“These are the words” (devarim)
Deuteronomy (meaning “second law”) stems from a misunderstanding of 17:18 where the term
appears in the Septuagint (deuteronomion), which actually refers to “a copy of the teaching.”
Deuteronomy often refers to itself as torah (1:5; 4:8, 44; 29:21; 30:10).
The Torah is set in the ancient Near East. The stories of each book play out from Ur to Egypt in
the lands of the Levant (along the eastern seaboard of the Mediterranean Sea) and
Mesopotamia (between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers).
Map 2-A:
The Setting of the Torah Story in the Ancient Near East
The books of the Torah are connected together successively. The end of each book dovetails in
some fashion with the beginning of the next book (Figure 2-B). Genesis closes with Jacob’s
blessing of his sons, which looks to the fate of the family line of each of his sons and two of his
grandsons. Exodus begins with the twelve families or tribes of Israel. It ends with God’s glory
filling the tabernacle, and Leviticus opens with Yahweh calling to Moses from inside the
tabernacle. Leviticus finishes with a series of regulations for rightly worshiping God, and
Numbers starts with the tribes’ worship. This book ends and Deuteronomy begins with the
Israelites on the plains of Moab preparing to enter the land of promise.
Figure 2-B:
The Connections between the Books of Torah
In addition to the transitional connections between each of the books of the Torah, there are
connections within the Torah as a whole. Put differently, Deuteronomy in some ways functions
as a new beginning by challenging Israel for the present and by interpreting the significance of
the first four books of the Torah (see Fretheim, 56–63). The imagery of the Song of Moses (Deut
32) echoes imagery from the creation and Sinai narratives. The Spirit of God hovered over the
wild and waste of the earth just as he hovered like an eagle over his people in the wasteland of
the wilderness (see Table 2-C).
Table 2-C:
Connections between the Imagery of the Creation and the Redemption
When the earth was wild and waste, darkness over the face of ocean, rushing-spirit of God
hovering over the face of the waters. (Gen 1:2 Fox, emphasis added) You yourselves have
seen what I did to Egypt, how I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to me. (Exod 19:4
Fox, emphasis added) He [Yahweh] found him [Jacob] in a wilderness land, in a waste, a
howling desert . . . like an eagle protecting its nest, over its young-birds hovering, he spread out
his wings, he took him, bearing him on his pinions. (Deut 32:10–11 Fox, emphasis added)
The minimal effect of these connections—and there are many others—includes a unified
perspective of the Torah as a whole and the oneness of God the Creator and Redeemer. God’s
activity in both creating and redeeming reveals that he is one in his loving and gracious
intentions for humankind (see von Rad, 53–64).
A READING
The first five books of the Scriptures are known as the Torah or the Five Books of Moses. Many
Christians have understood the Hebrew word torah too narrowly as “law” because of traditional
translations meaning law. It was translated as nomos in the Septuagint, lex in the Latin Vulgate,
and “law” in the King James Version. Although torah can be used with legal connotations, this
misses the more basic sense of the word. Torah, in fact, is better understood as “instruction” or
“teaching.” The educational overtones of “instruction” aptly capture the expectation that torah
would be passed from one generation to the next (see Deut 6:6–9).
What is the meaning of the Hebrew word torah?
As noted in Chapter 1, this book uses “torah” of teaching or instruction and “Torah” of the first
five books of the Bible. The purpose of the Five Books of Moses was not merely to present the
613 laws embedded within them (see Rabinowitz, 5:761–83). Rather, the Torah—“revealed
instruction”—as a whole is story (see Sanders, 9–39). Actually, it is the beginning of the story,
and as such it offers much to those who seek to read it as God’s will.
What is denoted by “the Torah”?
The Torah story establishes the larger biblical narrative as the story of God’s word and the
human revolution against that word. The story may be framed as a question because the matter
is still open at the end of the Torah, as well as at the end of the Hebrew Scriptures: How will
God’s word prevail over the human revolution? The question affirms faith in the power of God’s
word. The answer lies somewhere in the future, beyond the story itself.
What is the Torah’s story?
Genesis begins with an account of God’s speaking the world into existence. God said, “Let there
be light,” and, indeed, there was light (Gen 1:3). God’s word is powerful. It creates and predicts.
The prophets preface their oracles with “Yahweh says” to denote the authority with which they
claim to speak. When God speaks in the beginning of Genesis, everything listens—everything
except human beings. Humans rebel against the single command God gave them. Moreover,
humanity as a whole consistently defies God’s will. The human exception—whether or not
human beings will finally accord with the word of God—forms the problem of the biblical story.
Yahweh spoke his answer to Abraham and promised him seed, land, and blessing. Yahweh has
spoken and it will be. It is the way Joseph interpreted the events in his story: Even those things
intended for evil God used for good to accomplish his word.
Exodus opens with a king of Egypt who had forgotten Joseph, but Yahweh had not forgotten his
word to Abraham. Because of the ancient promise, he speaks to Moses from a burning bush
and leads his people from slavery to the mountain by his mighty arm. From the mountain
Yahweh speaks. The people respond by saying they would obey his voice. Israel, however,
proves to be like their ancestors and like all other human beings—sinful and rebellious against
Yahweh’s will. Yet, in spite of the people’s failures, Yahweh’s glory descends to the tabernacle
and to his people.
Map 2-D:
The Geographic Setting of Individual Books of Torah (The settings marked out are for the main
story lines and do not include other things like the Table of Nations in Genesis 10.)
Leviticus starts with Yahweh calling out to Moses from the tent of meeting. The book records his
instruction for holiness so that his people may continue to enjoy God’s presence among them.
The other options are unthinkable—he will leave them or his holiness will kill them.
Numbers continues the story of the people in the wilderness. At every turn they succumb to
temptation, grumbling, and rebelling against God and his leading. His word is rejected. Even
after the first generation is gone, the second proves to have the same dilemma—a propensity
toward sinfulness. Yahweh’s consistent provision demonstrates, in the end, that the people’s
problems spring not from the wilderness around them but from their own wickedness. Still, in
spite of the failures and rebellions of the second generation, Yahweh will take them into the land
he promised their ancestors.
Deuteronomy offers three discourses to you “here today” (e.g., Deut 5:3)—to listeners then and
to present readers across the generations. These discourses look both back and ahead, so that
the readers do not forget what Yahweh has done when they get to where they are going,
namely, the land of promise on the other side of the Jordan River. The book refers to itself as
torah (revealed instruction to its readers). The instruction includes, among other things, the
command to love Yahweh with all of oneself and to talk of his word everywhere, all the time.
How one passes God’s instruction to the next generation reveals the essence of one’s devotion
to Yahweh.
The Torah looks back and reveals the future. It offers an account of Yahweh’s world and
Yahweh’s word that is a challenge for the next generation. The Torah ends with an expectation
for a prophet to come, a prophet like Moses. The future looks like the past. The future hope and
the teaching for generations to come are the same: to know God’s word and to expect the one
who will bring his word to those who need it.
If one can understand the statement “and God said” in Genesis 1:3, then one can understand
the entire Torah. Yahweh’s will is embodied in his word—Torah.
Torah being lifted up at the Western Wall, Jerusalem
iStock.com/guter
ANOTHER LOOK
What is the function of the Torah? Near the end of the Torah Moses summarizes his pessimistic
view of the readers’ potential for obedience. “Take this Book of the Torah and place it beside the
ark of the covenant of Yahweh your God. There it will remain as a witness against you. For I
know how rebellious and stiff-necked you are. If you have been rebellious against Yahweh while
I am still alive and with you, how much more will you rebel after I die!” (Deut 31:26–27,
emphasis added).
The apostle Paul thought that before his conversion he had obeyed the Torah (see Phil 3:5–6).
Yet, after his conversion, he came to regard his former interpretation as a misreading (see 1 Tim
1:13, 15). Paul’s new reading of the function of the Torah was closer to that of Moses. “Now we
know that the Torah is good if anyone uses it the way it should be used. Knowing this, that the
Torah does not exist for a righteous person, but for the torah-less and defiant, the irreligious and
sinful” (1 Tim 1:8–9 lit.). The phrases “the Torah is good if anyone uses it the way it should be
used” and “the Torah . . . [is] for the torah-less” use wordplays on the Greek word for torah (the
italicized terms are each from the Greek word nomos).
What is the function of the Torah?
How exactly is the Torah “good” if it demonstrates human sinfulness? Knowing who we
are—rebels against God’s word—is the beginning of the gospel (see Chapters 24 and 28).
Further, the Torah does not speak despair to readers. It offers the story of the word of God. The
Torah, therefore, is the beginning of a larger story that explains the meaning of the human
situation and the hope for salvation. Torah is life.
INTERACTIVE WORKSHOP
Chapter Summary
The Hebrew term torah literally means instruction or teaching. The Torah story can be framed as
a question: How will God’s word overcome the human rebellion? Each of the books of the Torah
advances the interrelated five-part serial story.
Can You Explain the Key Terms?
• Pentateuch
• torah
• Torah
• Septuagint
Challenge Questions
1. Explain the connection between any two adjacent books of the Pentateuch (include verse
references).
2. What is the Torah story, and how does it tie together the Torah with the rest of Scripture?
3. How does the Pentateuch demonstrate the oneness of God as Creator and Redeemer?
4. What is the significance of God’s word within the context of the Torah?
5. What evidence demonstrates the need for Torah to be studied in every area of life?
Advanced Questions
1. What are the most important interpretive differences between the Torah as a book of laws
versus as story?
2. What difference does it make to interpret one of the books of the Torah as a book versus as a
part of the Torah as a whole? Demonstrate this difference with any one of the books of the
Torah.
*3. Define the semantic range of the Hebrew word torah within the Torah, especially in
Deuteronomy.
Research Project Ideas
Explain how any of the five books functions both as a book and as part of the Torah serial
narrative (see Fox, “Can?”; Rendtorff).
Define the meaning of the Hebrew word torah in the Old Testament and/or the meaning of the
Greek term nomos in both Testaments (see Downing; Sanders; Byrne).
The Next Step
Blenkinsopp, Joseph. The Pentateuch: An Introduction to the First Five Books of the Bible.
Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
Byrne, Brendan. “The Problem of Nomos and the Relationship with Judaism in Romans.”
Catholic Biblical Quarterly 62 (2000): 294–309.
Childs, Brevard S. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.
Downing, F. Gerald. “Legislation as Social Engineering in the New Testament World.” Pages
218–27 in The Torah in the New Testament: Papers Delivered at the Manchester-Lausanne
Seminar of June 2008. Edited by Michael Tait and Peter Oakes. New York: T&T Clark, 2009.
Fox, Everett. “Can Genesis Be Read as a Book?” Semeia 46 (1989): 31–40.
Fretheim, Terrence E. The Pentateuch. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.
Milgrom, Jacob. Leviticus 1–16. Anchor Bible 3. New York: Doubleday, 1991.
Rabinowitz, Abraham Hirsch. “Commandments, The 613.” Pages 761–83 in vol. 5 of
Encyclopedia Judaica.
Rendtorff, Rolf. “Is It Possible to Read Leviticus as a Separate Book?” Pages 22–35 in Reading
Leviticus: A Conversation with Mary Douglas. Edited by John F. A. Sawyer. Journal for the
Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 227. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1996.
Sanders, James A. Canon as Paradigm: From Sacred Story to Sacred Text. Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1987.
Sparks, Kenton L. The Pentateuch: An Annotated Bibliography. IBR Bibliographies 1. Grand
Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002.
von Rad, Gerhard. “The Theological Problem of the Old Testament Doctrine of Creation.” Pages
53–64 in Creation and the Old Testament. Edited by Bernard W. Anderson. Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1984.
**## BIBLE282WEEK7READING.pdf**
AN OVERVIEW
The Torah is sometimes conceived as a single work, the Torah scroll. Messiah called it the “book
of Moses” in Mark 12:26. This single work, the Torah, is comprised of five “books,” hence,
“Pentateuch” (see Blenkinsopp, 42–47; Childs, 128–32). It is viable to study each book of the
Torah as well as the Torah as a whole (see Fox, “Can?,” 31–40; Rendtorff, 22–35). The five
books constitute a serial narrative—the Torah story.
In what sense is the Torah five books and in what sense is it one story?
The name of each of the five books captures some sense of the book itself. The traditional
Hebrew names derive from the opening words of the respective books, and the traditional
Christian names are each based on some aspect of the content of the books. The Christian
names come from the Septuagint, the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures.
“In the beginning” (the traditional name from the Hebrew word bereshit)
Genesis (meaning “origin”) is taken from 2:4 in the Septuagint: “This is the book of the genesis
of heaven and earth” (LXX lit.).
“These are the names” (shemot)
Exodus is named for Israel’s liberation from slavery and departure from Egypt, the narrative of
which is presented in the first part of the book.
“And he called” (vayyiqra)
Leviticus has nothing to do with the Levites. In the ancient Hellenistic world “Levites” meant
priests, and the name was given to the third book of the Torah, which presents instructions for
the priests and people (see Milgrom, 1).
“In the wilderness” (bemidbar)
Numbers is named for the censuses in the book (see Num 1 and 26).
“These are the words” (devarim)
Deuteronomy (meaning “second law”) stems from a misunderstanding of 17:18 where the term
appears in the Septuagint (deuteronomion), which actually refers to “a copy of the teaching.”
Deuteronomy often refers to itself as torah (1:5; 4:8, 44; 29:21; 30:10).
The Torah is set in the ancient Near East. The stories of each book play out from Ur to Egypt in
the lands of the Levant (along the eastern seaboard of the Mediterranean Sea) and
Mesopotamia (between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers).
Map 2-A:
The Setting of the Torah Story in the Ancient Near East
The books of the Torah are connected together successively. The end of each book dovetails in
some fashion with the beginning of the next book (Figure 2-B). Genesis closes with Jacob’s
blessing of his sons, which looks to the fate of the family line of each of his sons and two of his
grandsons. Exodus begins with the twelve families or tribes of Israel. It ends with God’s glory
filling the tabernacle, and Leviticus opens with Yahweh calling to Moses from inside the
tabernacle. Leviticus finishes with a series of regulations for rightly worshiping God, and
Numbers starts with the tribes’ worship. This book ends and Deuteronomy begins with the
Israelites on the plains of Moab preparing to enter the land of promise.
Figure 2-B:
The Connections between the Books of Torah
In addition to the transitional connections between each of the books of the Torah, there are
connections within the Torah as a whole. Put differently, Deuteronomy in some ways functions
as a new beginning by challenging Israel for the present and by interpreting the significance of
the first four books of the Torah (see Fretheim, 56–63). The imagery of the Song of Moses (Deut
32) echoes imagery from the creation and Sinai narratives. The Spirit of God hovered over the
wild and waste of the earth just as he hovered like an eagle over his people in the wasteland of
the wilderness (see Table 2-C).
Table 2-C:
Connections between the Imagery of the Creation and the Redemption
When the earth was wild and waste, darkness over the face of ocean, rushing-spirit of God
hovering over the face of the waters. (Gen 1:2 Fox, emphasis added) You yourselves have
seen what I did to Egypt, how I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to me. (Exod 19:4
Fox, emphasis added) He [Yahweh] found him [Jacob] in a wilderness land, in a waste, a
howling desert . . . like an eagle protecting its nest, over its young-birds hovering, he spread out
his wings, he took him, bearing him on his pinions. (Deut 32:10–11 Fox, emphasis added)
The minimal effect of these connections—and there are many others—includes a unified
perspective of the Torah as a whole and the oneness of God the Creator and Redeemer. God’s
activity in both creating and redeeming reveals that he is one in his loving and gracious
intentions for humankind (see von Rad, 53–64).
A READING
The first five books of the Scriptures are known as the Torah or the Five Books of Moses. Many
Christians have understood the Hebrew word torah too narrowly as “law” because of traditional
translations meaning law. It was translated as nomos in the Septuagint, lex in the Latin Vulgate,
and “law” in the King James Version. Although torah can be used with legal connotations, this
misses the more basic sense of the word. Torah, in fact, is better understood as “instruction” or
“teaching.” The educational overtones of “instruction” aptly capture the expectation that torah
would be passed from one generation to the next (see Deut 6:6–9).
What is the meaning of the Hebrew word torah?
As noted in Chapter 1, this book uses “torah” of teaching or instruction and “Torah” of the first
five books of the Bible. The purpose of the Five Books of Moses was not merely to present the
613 laws embedded within them (see Rabinowitz, 5:761–83). Rather, the Torah—“revealed
instruction”—as a whole is story (see Sanders, 9–39). Actually, it is the beginning of the story,
and as such it offers much to those who seek to read it as God’s will.
What is denoted by “the Torah”?
The Torah story establishes the larger biblical narrative as the story of God’s word and the
human revolution against that word. The story may be framed as a question because the matter
is still open at the end of the Torah, as well as at the end of the Hebrew Scriptures: How will
God’s word prevail over the human revolution? The question affirms faith in the power of God’s
word. The answer lies somewhere in the future, beyond the story itself.
What is the Torah’s story?
Genesis begins with an account of God’s speaking the world into existence. God said, “Let there
be light,” and, indeed, there was light (Gen 1:3). God’s word is powerful. It creates and predicts.
The prophets preface their oracles with “Yahweh says” to denote the authority with which they
claim to speak. When God speaks in the beginning of Genesis, everything listens—everything
except human beings. Humans rebel against the single command God gave them. Moreover,
humanity as a whole consistently defies God’s will. The human exception—whether or not
human beings will finally accord with the word of God—forms the problem of the biblical story.
Yahweh spoke his answer to Abraham and promised him seed, land, and blessing. Yahweh has
spoken and it will be. It is the way Joseph interpreted the events in his story: Even those things
intended for evil God used for good to accomplish his word.
Exodus opens with a king of Egypt who had forgotten Joseph, but Yahweh had not forgotten his
word to Abraham. Because of the ancient promise, he speaks to Moses from a burning bush
and leads his people from slavery to the mountain by his mighty arm. From the mountain
Yahweh speaks. The people respond by saying they would obey his voice. Israel, however,
proves to be like their ancestors and like all other human beings—sinful and rebellious against
Yahweh’s will. Yet, in spite of the people’s failures, Yahweh’s glory descends to the tabernacle
and to his people.
Map 2-D:
The Geographic Setting of Individual Books of Torah (The settings marked out are for the main
story lines and do not include other things like the Table of Nations in Genesis 10.)
Leviticus starts with Yahweh calling out to Moses from the tent of meeting. The book records his
instruction for holiness so that his people may continue to enjoy God’s presence among them.
The other options are unthinkable—he will leave them or his holiness will kill them.
Numbers continues the story of the people in the wilderness. At every turn they succumb to
temptation, grumbling, and rebelling against God and his leading. His word is rejected. Even
after the first generation is gone, the second proves to have the same dilemma—a propensity
toward sinfulness. Yahweh’s consistent provision demonstrates, in the end, that the people’s
problems spring not from the wilderness around them but from their own wickedness. Still, in
spite of the failures and rebellions of the second generation, Yahweh will take them into the land
he promised their ancestors.
Deuteronomy offers three discourses to you “here today” (e.g., Deut 5:3)—to listeners then and
to present readers across the generations. These discourses look both back and ahead, so that
the readers do not forget what Yahweh has done when they get to where they are going,
namely, the land of promise on the other side of the Jordan River. The book refers to itself as
torah (revealed instruction to its readers). The instruction includes, among other things, the
command to love Yahweh with all of oneself and to talk of his word everywhere, all the time.
How one passes God’s instruction to the next generation reveals the essence of one’s devotion
to Yahweh.
The Torah looks back and reveals the future. It offers an account of Yahweh’s world and
Yahweh’s word that is a challenge for the next generation. The Torah ends with an expectation
for a prophet to come, a prophet like Moses. The future looks like the past. The future hope and
the teaching for generations to come are the same: to know God’s word and to expect the one
who will bring his word to those who need it.
If one can understand the statement “and God said” in Genesis 1:3, then one can understand
the entire Torah. Yahweh’s will is embodied in his word—Torah.
Torah being lifted up at the Western Wall, Jerusalem
iStock.com/guter
ANOTHER LOOK
What is the function of the Torah? Near the end of the Torah Moses summarizes his pessimistic
view of the readers’ potential for obedience. “Take this Book of the Torah and place it beside the
ark of the covenant of Yahweh your God. There it will remain as a witness against you. For I
know how rebellious and stiff-necked you are. If you have been rebellious against Yahweh while
I am still alive and with you, how much more will you rebel after I die!” (Deut 31:26–27,
emphasis added).
The apostle Paul thought that before his conversion he had obeyed the Torah (see Phil 3:5–6).
Yet, after his conversion, he came to regard his former interpretation as a misreading (see 1 Tim
1:13, 15). Paul’s new reading of the function of the Torah was closer to that of Moses. “Now we
know that the Torah is good if anyone uses it the way it should be used. Knowing this, that the
Torah does not exist for a righteous person, but for the torah-less and defiant, the irreligious and
sinful” (1 Tim 1:8–9 lit.). The phrases “the Torah is good if anyone uses it the way it should be
used” and “the Torah . . . [is] for the torah-less” use wordplays on the Greek word for torah (the
italicized terms are each from the Greek word nomos).
What is the function of the Torah?
How exactly is the Torah “good” if it demonstrates human sinfulness? Knowing who we
are—rebels against God’s word—is the beginning of the gospel (see Chapters 24 and 28).
Further, the Torah does not speak despair to readers. It offers the story of the word of God. The
Torah, therefore, is the beginning of a larger story that explains the meaning of the human
situation and the hope for salvation. Torah is life.
INTERACTIVE WORKSHOP
Chapter Summary
The Hebrew term torah literally means instruction or teaching. The Torah story can be framed as
a question: How will God’s word overcome the human rebellion? Each of the books of the Torah
advances the interrelated five-part serial story.
Can You Explain the Key Terms?
• Pentateuch
• torah
• Torah
• Septuagint
Challenge Questions
1. Explain the connection between any two adjacent books of the Pentateuch (include verse
references).
2. What is the Torah story, and how does it tie together the Torah with the rest of Scripture?
3. How does the Pentateuch demonstrate the oneness of God as Creator and Redeemer?
4. What is the significance of God’s word within the context of the Torah?
5. What evidence demonstrates the need for Torah to be studied in every area of life?
Advanced Questions
1. What are the most important interpretive differences between the Torah as a book of laws
versus as story?
2. What difference does it make to interpret one of the books of the Torah as a book versus as a
part of the Torah as a whole? Demonstrate this difference with any one of the books of the
Torah.
*3. Define the semantic range of the Hebrew word torah within the Torah, especially in
Deuteronomy.
Research Project Ideas
Explain how any of the five books functions both as a book and as part of the Torah serial
narrative (see Fox, “Can?”; Rendtorff).
Define the meaning of the Hebrew word torah in the Old Testament and/or the meaning of the
Greek term nomos in both Testaments (see Downing; Sanders; Byrne).
The Next Step
Blenkinsopp, Joseph. The Pentateuch: An Introduction to the First Five Books of the Bible.
Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
Byrne, Brendan. “The Problem of Nomos and the Relationship with Judaism in Romans.”
Catholic Biblical Quarterly 62 (2000): 294–309.
Childs, Brevard S. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.
Downing, F. Gerald. “Legislation as Social Engineering in the New Testament World.” Pages
218–27 in The Torah in the New Testament: Papers Delivered at the Manchester-Lausanne
Seminar of June 2008. Edited by Michael Tait and Peter Oakes. New York: T&T Clark, 2009.
Fox, Everett. “Can Genesis Be Read as a Book?” Semeia 46 (1989): 31–40.
Fretheim, Terrence E. The Pentateuch. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.
Milgrom, Jacob. Leviticus 1–16. Anchor Bible 3. New York: Doubleday, 1991.
Rabinowitz, Abraham Hirsch. “Commandments, The 613.” Pages 761–83 in vol. 5 of
Encyclopedia Judaica.
Rendtorff, Rolf. “Is It Possible to Read Leviticus as a Separate Book?” Pages 22–35 in Reading
Leviticus: A Conversation with Mary Douglas. Edited by John F. A. Sawyer. Journal for the
Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 227. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1996.
Sanders, James A. Canon as Paradigm: From Sacred Story to Sacred Text. Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1987.
Sparks, Kenton L. The Pentateuch: An Annotated Bibliography. IBR Bibliographies 1. Grand
Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002.
von Rad, Gerhard. “The Theological Problem of the Old Testament Doctrine of Creation.” Pages
53–64 in Creation and the Old Testament. Edited by Bernard W. Anderson. Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1984.
**## BIBL282WEEK7.pdf**
For this week's group dialogue, please respond to the prompt stated below, along with
two replies to fellow students. A grading rubric for this assignment can be found by
clicking on the three vertical dots above right and clicking on "Show Rubric."
For this week's discussion forum, reflect on what you have learned thus far in this
course about the Pentateuch. Be sure to provide clear explanations as well as
biblical references wherever appropriate. Please avoid discussing Genesis 1 in this
post since we have already discussed that chapter previously.
**## BIBLE282WEEK7READING.pdf**
AN OVERVIEW
The Torah is sometimes conceived as a single work, the Torah scroll. Messiah called it the “book
of Moses” in Mark 12:26. This single work, the Torah, is comprised of five “books,” hence,
“Pentateuch” (see Blenkinsopp, 42–47; Childs, 128–32). It is viable to study each book of the
Torah as well as the Torah as a whole (see Fox, “Can?,” 31–40; Rendtorff, 22–35). The five
books constitute a serial narrative—the Torah story.
In what sense is the Torah five books and in what sense is it one story?
The name of each of the five books captures some sense of the book itself. The traditional
Hebrew names derive from the opening words of the respective books, and the traditional
Christian names are each based on some aspect of the content of the books. The Christian
names come from the Septuagint, the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures.
“In the beginning” (the traditional name from the Hebrew word bereshit)
Genesis (meaning “origin”) is taken from 2:4 in the Septuagint: “This is the book of the genesis
of heaven and earth” (LXX lit.).
“These are the names” (shemot)
Exodus is named for Israel’s liberation from slavery and departure from Egypt, the narrative of
which is presented in the first part of the book.
“And he called” (vayyiqra)
Leviticus has nothing to do with the Levites. In the ancient Hellenistic world “Levites” meant
priests, and the name was given to the third book of the Torah, which presents instructions for
the priests and people (see Milgrom, 1).
“In the wilderness” (bemidbar)
Numbers is named for the censuses in the book (see Num 1 and 26).
“These are the words” (devarim)
Deuteronomy (meaning “second law”) stems from a misunderstanding of 17:18 where the term
appears in the Septuagint (deuteronomion), which actually refers to “a copy of the teaching.”
Deuteronomy often refers to itself as torah (1:5; 4:8, 44; 29:21; 30:10).
The Torah is set in the ancient Near East. The stories of each book play out from Ur to Egypt in
the lands of the Levant (along the eastern seaboard of the Mediterranean Sea) and
Mesopotamia (between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers).
Map 2-A:
The Setting of the Torah Story in the Ancient Near East
The books of the Torah are connected together successively. The end of each book dovetails in
some fashion with the beginning of the next book (Figure 2-B). Genesis closes with Jacob’s
blessing of his sons, which looks to the fate of the family line of each of his sons and two of his
grandsons. Exodus begins with the twelve families or tribes of Israel. It ends with God’s glory
filling the tabernacle, and Leviticus opens with Yahweh calling to Moses from inside the
tabernacle. Leviticus finishes with a series of regulations for rightly worshiping God, and
Numbers starts with the tribes’ worship. This book ends and Deuteronomy begins with the
Israelites on the plains of Moab preparing to enter the land of promise.
Figure 2-B:
The Connections between the Books of Torah
In addition to the transitional connections between each of the books of the Torah, there are
connections within the Torah as a whole. Put differently, Deuteronomy in some ways functions
as a new beginning by challenging Israel for the present and by interpreting the significance of
the first four books of the Torah (see Fretheim, 56–63). The imagery of the Song of Moses (Deut
32) echoes imagery from the creation and Sinai narratives. The Spirit of God hovered over the
wild and waste of the earth just as he hovered like an eagle over his people in the wasteland of
the wilderness (see Table 2-C).
Table 2-C:
Connections between the Imagery of the Creation and the Redemption
When the earth was wild and waste, darkness over the face of ocean, rushing-spirit of God
hovering over the face of the waters. (Gen 1:2 Fox, emphasis added) You yourselves have
seen what I did to Egypt, how I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to me. (Exod 19:4
Fox, emphasis added) He [Yahweh] found him [Jacob] in a wilderness land, in a waste, a
howling desert . . . like an eagle protecting its nest, over its young-birds hovering, he spread out
his wings, he took him, bearing him on his pinions. (Deut 32:10–11 Fox, emphasis added)
The minimal effect of these connections—and there are many others—includes a unified
perspective of the Torah as a whole and the oneness of God the Creator and Redeemer. God’s
activity in both creating and redeeming reveals that he is one in his loving and gracious
intentions for humankind (see von Rad, 53–64).
A READING
The first five books of the Scriptures are known as the Torah or the Five Books of Moses. Many
Christians have understood the Hebrew word torah too narrowly as “law” because of traditional
translations meaning law. It was translated as nomos in the Septuagint, lex in the Latin Vulgate,
and “law” in the King James Version. Although torah can be used with legal connotations, this
misses the more basic sense of the word. Torah, in fact, is better understood as “instruction” or
“teaching.” The educational overtones of “instruction” aptly capture the expectation that torah
would be passed from one generation to the next (see Deut 6:6–9).
What is the meaning of the Hebrew word torah?
As noted in Chapter 1, this book uses “torah” of teaching or instruction and “Torah” of the first
five books of the Bible. The purpose of the Five Books of Moses was not merely to present the
613 laws embedded within them (see Rabinowitz, 5:761–83). Rather, the Torah—“revealed
instruction”—as a whole is story (see Sanders, 9–39). Actually, it is the beginning of the story,
and as such it offers much to those who seek to read it as God’s will.
What is denoted by “the Torah”?
The Torah story establishes the larger biblical narrative as the story of God’s word and the
human revolution against that word. The story may be framed as a question because the matter
is still open at the end of the Torah, as well as at the end of the Hebrew Scriptures: How will
God’s word prevail over the human revolution? The question affirms faith in the power of God’s
word. The answer lies somewhere in the future, beyond the story itself.
What is the Torah’s story?
Genesis begins with an account of God’s speaking the world into existence. God said, “Let there
be light,” and, indeed, there was light (Gen 1:3). God’s word is powerful. It creates and predicts.
The prophets preface their oracles with “Yahweh says” to denote the authority with which they
claim to speak. When God speaks in the beginning of Genesis, everything listens—everything
except human beings. Humans rebel against the single command God gave them. Moreover,
humanity as a whole consistently defies God’s will. The human exception—whether or not
human beings will finally accord with the word of God—forms the problem of the biblical story.
Yahweh spoke his answer to Abraham and promised him seed, land, and blessing. Yahweh has
spoken and it will be. It is the way Joseph interpreted the events in his story: Even those things
intended for evil God used for good to accomplish his word.
Exodus opens with a king of Egypt who had forgotten Joseph, but Yahweh had not forgotten his
word to Abraham. Because of the ancient promise, he speaks to Moses from a burning bush
and leads his people from slavery to the mountain by his mighty arm. From the mountain
Yahweh speaks. The people respond by saying they would obey his voice. Israel, however,
proves to be like their ancestors and like all other human beings—sinful and rebellious against
Yahweh’s will. Yet, in spite of the people’s failures, Yahweh’s glory descends to the tabernacle
and to his people.
Map 2-D:
The Geographic Setting of Individual Books of Torah (The settings marked out are for the main
story lines and do not include other things like the Table of Nations in Genesis 10.)
Leviticus starts with Yahweh calling out to Moses from the tent of meeting. The book records his
instruction for holiness so that his people may continue to enjoy God’s presence among them.
The other options are unthinkable—he will leave them or his holiness will kill them.
Numbers continues the story of the people in the wilderness. At every turn they succumb to
temptation, grumbling, and rebelling against God and his leading. His word is rejected. Even
after the first generation is gone, the second proves to have the same dilemma—a propensity
toward sinfulness. Yahweh’s consistent provision demonstrates, in the end, that the people’s
problems spring not from the wilderness around them but from their own wickedness. Still, in
spite of the failures and rebellions of the second generation, Yahweh will take them into the land
he promised their ancestors.
Deuteronomy offers three discourses to you “here today” (e.g., Deut 5:3)—to listeners then and
to present readers across the generations. These discourses look both back and ahead, so that
the readers do not forget what Yahweh has done when they get to where they are going,
namely, the land of promise on the other side of the Jordan River. The book refers to itself as
torah (revealed instruction to its readers). The instruction includes, among other things, the
command to love Yahweh with all of oneself and to talk of his word everywhere, all the time.
How one passes God’s instruction to the next generation reveals the essence of one’s devotion
to Yahweh.
The Torah looks back and reveals the future. It offers an account of Yahweh’s world and
Yahweh’s word that is a challenge for the next generation. The Torah ends with an expectation
for a prophet to come, a prophet like Moses. The future looks like the past. The future hope and
the teaching for generations to come are the same: to know God’s word and to expect the one
who will bring his word to those who need it.
If one can understand the statement “and God said” in Genesis 1:3, then one can understand
the entire Torah. Yahweh’s will is embodied in his word—Torah.
Torah being lifted up at the Western Wall, Jerusalem
iStock.com/guter
ANOTHER LOOK
What is the function of the Torah? Near the end of the Torah Moses summarizes his pessimistic
view of the readers’ potential for obedience. “Take this Book of the Torah and place it beside the
ark of the covenant of Yahweh your God. There it will remain as a witness against you. For I
know how rebellious and stiff-necked you are. If you have been rebellious against Yahweh while
I am still alive and with you, how much more will you rebel after I die!” (Deut 31:26–27,
emphasis added).
The apostle Paul thought that before his conversion he had obeyed the Torah (see Phil 3:5–6).
Yet, after his conversion, he came to regard his former interpretation as a misreading (see 1 Tim
1:13, 15). Paul’s new reading of the function of the Torah was closer to that of Moses. “Now we
know that the Torah is good if anyone uses it the way it should be used. Knowing this, that the
Torah does not exist for a righteous person, but for the torah-less and defiant, the irreligious and
sinful” (1 Tim 1:8–9 lit.). The phrases “the Torah is good if anyone uses it the way it should be
used” and “the Torah . . . [is] for the torah-less” use wordplays on the Greek word for torah (the
italicized terms are each from the Greek word nomos).
What is the function of the Torah?
How exactly is the Torah “good” if it demonstrates human sinfulness? Knowing who we
are—rebels against God’s word—is the beginning of the gospel (see Chapters 24 and 28).
Further, the Torah does not speak despair to readers. It offers the story of the word of God. The
Torah, therefore, is the beginning of a larger story that explains the meaning of the human
situation and the hope for salvation. Torah is life.
INTERACTIVE WORKSHOP
Chapter Summary
The Hebrew term torah literally means instruction or teaching. The Torah story can be framed as
a question: How will God’s word overcome the human rebellion? Each of the books of the Torah
advances the interrelated five-part serial story.
Can You Explain the Key Terms?
• Pentateuch
• torah
• Torah
• Septuagint
Challenge Questions
1. Explain the connection between any two adjacent books of the Pentateuch (include verse
references).
2. What is the Torah story, and how does it tie together the Torah with the rest of Scripture?
3. How does the Pentateuch demonstrate the oneness of God as Creator and Redeemer?
4. What is the significance of God’s word within the context of the Torah?
5. What evidence demonstrates the need for Torah to be studied in every area of life?
Advanced Questions
1. What are the most important interpretive differences between the Torah as a book of laws
versus as story?
2. What difference does it make to interpret one of the books of the Torah as a book versus as a
part of the Torah as a whole? Demonstrate this difference with any one of the books of the
Torah.
*3. Define the semantic range of the Hebrew word torah within the Torah, especially in
Deuteronomy.
Research Project Ideas
Explain how any of the five books functions both as a book and as part of the Torah serial
narrative (see Fox, “Can?”; Rendtorff).
Define the meaning of the Hebrew word torah in the Old Testament and/or the meaning of the
Greek term nomos in both Testaments (see Downing; Sanders; Byrne).
The Next Step
Blenkinsopp, Joseph. The Pentateuch: An Introduction to the First Five Books of the Bible.
Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
Byrne, Brendan. “The Problem of Nomos and the Relationship with Judaism in Romans.”
Catholic Biblical Quarterly 62 (2000): 294–309.
Childs, Brevard S. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.
Downing, F. Gerald. “Legislation as Social Engineering in the New Testament World.” Pages
218–27 in The Torah in the New Testament: Papers Delivered at the Manchester-Lausanne
Seminar of June 2008. Edited by Michael Tait and Peter Oakes. New York: T&T Clark, 2009.
Fox, Everett. “Can Genesis Be Read as a Book?” Semeia 46 (1989): 31–40.
Fretheim, Terrence E. The Pentateuch. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.
Milgrom, Jacob. Leviticus 1–16. Anchor Bible 3. New York: Doubleday, 1991.
Rabinowitz, Abraham Hirsch. “Commandments, The 613.” Pages 761–83 in vol. 5 of
Encyclopedia Judaica.
Rendtorff, Rolf. “Is It Possible to Read Leviticus as a Separate Book?” Pages 22–35 in Reading
Leviticus: A Conversation with Mary Douglas. Edited by John F. A. Sawyer. Journal for the
Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 227. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1996.
Sanders, James A. Canon as Paradigm: From Sacred Story to Sacred Text. Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1987.
Sparks, Kenton L. The Pentateuch: An Annotated Bibliography. IBR Bibliographies 1. Grand
Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002.
von Rad, Gerhard. “The Theological Problem of the Old Testament Doctrine of Creation.” Pages
53–64 in Creation and the Old Testament. Edited by Bernard W. Anderson. Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1984.
**## BIBL282WEEK7.pdf**
For this week's group dialogue, please respond to the prompt stated below, along with
two replies to fellow students. A grading rubric for this assignment can be found by
clicking on the three vertical dots above right and clicking on "Show Rubric."
For this week's discussion forum, reflect on what you have learned thus far in this
course about the Pentateuch. Be sure to provide clear explanations as well as
biblical references wherever appropriate. Please avoid discussing Genesis 1 in this
post since we have already discussed that chapter previously.
**## BIBLE282WEEK7READING.pdf**
AN OVERVIEW
The Torah is sometimes conceived as a single work, the Torah scroll. Messiah called it the “book
of Moses” in Mark 12:26. This single work, the Torah, is comprised of five “books,” hence,
“Pentateuch” (see Blenkinsopp, 42–47; Childs, 128–32). It is viable to study each book of the
Torah as well as the Torah as a whole (see Fox, “Can?,” 31–40; Rendtorff, 22–35). The five
books constitute a serial narrative—the Torah story.
In what sense is the Torah five books and in what sense is it one story?
The name of each of the five books captures some sense of the book itself. The traditional
Hebrew names derive from the opening words of the respective books, and the traditional
Christian names are each based on some aspect of the content of the books. The Christian
names come from the Septuagint, the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures.
“In the beginning” (the traditional name from the Hebrew word bereshit)
Genesis (meaning “origin”) is taken from 2:4 in the Septuagint: “This is the book of the genesis
of heaven and earth” (LXX lit.).
“These are the names” (shemot)
Exodus is named for Israel’s liberation from slavery and departure from Egypt, the narrative of
which is presented in the first part of the book.
“And he called” (vayyiqra)
Leviticus has nothing to do with the Levites. In the ancient Hellenistic world “Levites” meant
priests, and the name was given to the third book of the Torah, which presents instructions for
the priests and people (see Milgrom, 1).
“In the wilderness” (bemidbar)
Numbers is named for the censuses in the book (see Num 1 and 26).
“These are the words” (devarim)
Deuteronomy (meaning “second law”) stems from a misunderstanding of 17:18 where the term
appears in the Septuagint (deuteronomion), which actually refers to “a copy of the teaching.”
Deuteronomy often refers to itself as torah (1:5; 4:8, 44; 29:21; 30:10).
The Torah is set in the ancient Near East. The stories of each book play out from Ur to Egypt in
the lands of the Levant (along the eastern seaboard of the Mediterranean Sea) and
Mesopotamia (between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers).
Map 2-A:
The Setting of the Torah Story in the Ancient Near East
The books of the Torah are connected together successively. The end of each book dovetails in
some fashion with the beginning of the next book (Figure 2-B). Genesis closes with Jacob’s
blessing of his sons, which looks to the fate of the family line of each of his sons and two of his
grandsons. Exodus begins with the twelve families or tribes of Israel. It ends with God’s glory
filling the tabernacle, and Leviticus opens with Yahweh calling to Moses from inside the
tabernacle. Leviticus finishes with a series of regulations for rightly worshiping God, and
Numbers starts with the tribes’ worship. This book ends and Deuteronomy begins with the
Israelites on the plains of Moab preparing to enter the land of promise.
Figure 2-B:
The Connections between the Books of Torah
In addition to the transitional connections between each of the books of the Torah, there are
connections within the Torah as a whole. Put differently, Deuteronomy in some ways functions
as a new beginning by challenging Israel for the present and by interpreting the significance of
the first four books of the Torah (see Fretheim, 56–63). The imagery of the Song of Moses (Deut
32) echoes imagery from the creation and Sinai narratives. The Spirit of God hovered over the
wild and waste of the earth just as he hovered like an eagle over his people in the wasteland of
the wilderness (see Table 2-C).
Table 2-C:
Connections between the Imagery of the Creation and the Redemption
When the earth was wild and waste, darkness over the face of ocean, rushing-spirit of God
hovering over the face of the waters. (Gen 1:2 Fox, emphasis added) You yourselves have
seen what I did to Egypt, how I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to me. (Exod 19:4
Fox, emphasis added) He [Yahweh] found him [Jacob] in a wilderness land, in a waste, a
howling desert . . . like an eagle protecting its nest, over its young-birds hovering, he spread out
his wings, he took him, bearing him on his pinions. (Deut 32:10–11 Fox, emphasis added)
The minimal effect of these connections—and there are many others—includes a unified
perspective of the Torah as a whole and the oneness of God the Creator and Redeemer. God’s
activity in both creating and redeeming reveals that he is one in his loving and gracious
intentions for humankind (see von Rad, 53–64).
A READING
The first five books of the Scriptures are known as the Torah or the Five Books of Moses. Many
Christians have understood the Hebrew word torah too narrowly as “law” because of traditional
translations meaning law. It was translated as nomos in the Septuagint, lex in the Latin Vulgate,
and “law” in the King James Version. Although torah can be used with legal connotations, this
misses the more basic sense of the word. Torah, in fact, is better understood as “instruction” or
“teaching.” The educational overtones of “instruction” aptly capture the expectation that torah
would be passed from one generation to the next (see Deut 6:6–9).
What is the meaning of the Hebrew word torah?
As noted in Chapter 1, this book uses “torah” of teaching or instruction and “Torah” of the first
five books of the Bible. The purpose of the Five Books of Moses was not merely to present the
613 laws embedded within them (see Rabinowitz, 5:761–83). Rather, the Torah—“revealed
instruction”—as a whole is story (see Sanders, 9–39). Actually, it is the beginning of the story,
and as such it offers much to those who seek to read it as God’s will.
What is denoted by “the Torah”?
The Torah story establishes the larger biblical narrative as the story of God’s word and the
human revolution against that word. The story may be framed as a question because the matter
is still open at the end of the Torah, as well as at the end of the Hebrew Scriptures: How will
God’s word prevail over the human revolution? The question affirms faith in the power of God’s
word. The answer lies somewhere in the future, beyond the story itself.
What is the Torah’s story?
Genesis begins with an account of God’s speaking the world into existence. God said, “Let there
be light,” and, indeed, there was light (Gen 1:3). God’s word is powerful. It creates and predicts.
The prophets preface their oracles with “Yahweh says” to denote the authority with which they
claim to speak. When God speaks in the beginning of Genesis, everything listens—everything
except human beings. Humans rebel against the single command God gave them. Moreover,
humanity as a whole consistently defies God’s will. The human exception—whether or not
human beings will finally accord with the word of God—forms the problem of the biblical story.
Yahweh spoke his answer to Abraham and promised him seed, land, and blessing. Yahweh has
spoken and it will be. It is the way Joseph interpreted the events in his story: Even those things
intended for evil God used for good to accomplish his word.
Exodus opens with a king of Egypt who had forgotten Joseph, but Yahweh had not forgotten his
word to Abraham. Because of the ancient promise, he speaks to Moses from a burning bush
and leads his people from slavery to the mountain by his mighty arm. From the mountain
Yahweh speaks. The people respond by saying they would obey his voice. Israel, however,
proves to be like their ancestors and like all other human beings—sinful and rebellious against
Yahweh’s will. Yet, in spite of the people’s failures, Yahweh’s glory descends to the tabernacle
and to his people.
Map 2-D:
The Geographic Setting of Individual Books of Torah (The settings marked out are for the main
story lines and do not include other things like the Table of Nations in Genesis 10.)
Leviticus starts with Yahweh calling out to Moses from the tent of meeting. The book records his
instruction for holiness so that his people may continue to enjoy God’s presence among them.
The other options are unthinkable—he will leave them or his holiness will kill them.
Numbers continues the story of the people in the wilderness. At every turn they succumb to
temptation, grumbling, and rebelling against God and his leading. His word is rejected. Even
after the first generation is gone, the second proves to have the same dilemma—a propensity
toward sinfulness. Yahweh’s consistent provision demonstrates, in the end, that the people’s
problems spring not from the wilderness around them but from their own wickedness. Still, in
spite of the failures and rebellions of the second generation, Yahweh will take them into the land
he promised their ancestors.
Deuteronomy offers three discourses to you “here today” (e.g., Deut 5:3)—to listeners then and
to present readers across the generations. These discourses look both back and ahead, so that
the readers do not forget what Yahweh has done when they get to where they are going,
namely, the land of promise on the other side of the Jordan River. The book refers to itself as
torah (revealed instruction to its readers). The instruction includes, among other things, the
command to love Yahweh with all of oneself and to talk of his word everywhere, all the time.
How one passes God’s instruction to the next generation reveals the essence of one’s devotion
to Yahweh.
The Torah looks back and reveals the future. It offers an account of Yahweh’s world and
Yahweh’s word that is a challenge for the next generation. The Torah ends with an expectation
for a prophet to come, a prophet like Moses. The future looks like the past. The future hope and
the teaching for generations to come are the same: to know God’s word and to expect the one
who will bring his word to those who need it.
If one can understand the statement “and God said” in Genesis 1:3, then one can understand
the entire Torah. Yahweh’s will is embodied in his word—Torah.
Torah being lifted up at the Western Wall, Jerusalem
iStock.com/guter
ANOTHER LOOK
What is the function of the Torah? Near the end of the Torah Moses summarizes his pessimistic
view of the readers’ potential for obedience. “Take this Book of the Torah and place it beside the
ark of the covenant of Yahweh your God. There it will remain as a witness against you. For I
know how rebellious and stiff-necked you are. If you have been rebellious against Yahweh while
I am still alive and with you, how much more will you rebel after I die!” (Deut 31:26–27,
emphasis added).
The apostle Paul thought that before his conversion he had obeyed the Torah (see Phil 3:5–6).
Yet, after his conversion, he came to regard his former interpretation as a misreading (see 1 Tim
1:13, 15). Paul’s new reading of the function of the Torah was closer to that of Moses. “Now we
know that the Torah is good if anyone uses it the way it should be used. Knowing this, that the
Torah does not exist for a righteous person, but for the torah-less and defiant, the irreligious and
sinful” (1 Tim 1:8–9 lit.). The phrases “the Torah is good if anyone uses it the way it should be
used” and “the Torah . . . [is] for the torah-less” use wordplays on the Greek word for torah (the
italicized terms are each from the Greek word nomos).
What is the function of the Torah?
How exactly is the Torah “good” if it demonstrates human sinfulness? Knowing who we
are—rebels against God’s word—is the beginning of the gospel (see Chapters 24 and 28).
Further, the Torah does not speak despair to readers. It offers the story of the word of God. The
Torah, therefore, is the beginning of a larger story that explains the meaning of the human
situation and the hope for salvation. Torah is life.
INTERACTIVE WORKSHOP
Chapter Summary
The Hebrew term torah literally means instruction or teaching. The Torah story can be framed as
a question: How will God’s word overcome the human rebellion? Each of the books of the Torah
advances the interrelated five-part serial story.
Can You Explain the Key Terms?
• Pentateuch
• torah
• Torah
• Septuagint
Challenge Questions
1. Explain the connection between any two adjacent books of the Pentateuch (include verse
references).
2. What is the Torah story, and how does it tie together the Torah with the rest of Scripture?
3. How does the Pentateuch demonstrate the oneness of God as Creator and Redeemer?
4. What is the significance of God’s word within the context of the Torah?
5. What evidence demonstrates the need for Torah to be studied in every area of life?
Advanced Questions
1. What are the most important interpretive differences between the Torah as a book of laws
versus as story?
2. What difference does it make to interpret one of the books of the Torah as a book versus as a
part of the Torah as a whole? Demonstrate this difference with any one of the books of the
Torah.
*3. Define the semantic range of the Hebrew word torah within the Torah, especially in
Deuteronomy.
Research Project Ideas
Explain how any of the five books functions both as a book and as part of the Torah serial
narrative (see Fox, “Can?”; Rendtorff).
Define the meaning of the Hebrew word torah in the Old Testament and/or the meaning of the
Greek term nomos in both Testaments (see Downing; Sanders; Byrne).
The Next Step
Blenkinsopp, Joseph. The Pentateuch: An Introduction to the First Five Books of the Bible.
Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
Byrne, Brendan. “The Problem of Nomos and the Relationship with Judaism in Romans.”
Catholic Biblical Quarterly 62 (2000): 294–309.
Childs, Brevard S. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.
Downing, F. Gerald. “Legislation as Social Engineering in the New Testament World.” Pages
218–27 in The Torah in the New Testament: Papers Delivered at the Manchester-Lausanne
Seminar of June 2008. Edited by Michael Tait and Peter Oakes. New York: T&T Clark, 2009.
Fox, Everett. “Can Genesis Be Read as a Book?” Semeia 46 (1989): 31–40.
Fretheim, Terrence E. The Pentateuch. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.
Milgrom, Jacob. Leviticus 1–16. Anchor Bible 3. New York: Doubleday, 1991.
Rabinowitz, Abraham Hirsch. “Commandments, The 613.” Pages 761–83 in vol. 5 of
Encyclopedia Judaica.
Rendtorff, Rolf. “Is It Possible to Read Leviticus as a Separate Book?” Pages 22–35 in Reading
Leviticus: A Conversation with Mary Douglas. Edited by John F. A. Sawyer. Journal for the
Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 227. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1996.
Sanders, James A. Canon as Paradigm: From Sacred Story to Sacred Text. Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1987.
Sparks, Kenton L. The Pentateuch: An Annotated Bibliography. IBR Bibliographies 1. Grand
Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002.
von Rad, Gerhard. “The Theological Problem of the Old Testament Doctrine of Creation.” Pages
53–64 in Creation and the Old Testament. Edited by Bernard W. Anderson. Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1984.
**files (1)** – ## TakSekadarMenawarkanTampilanSegarPlatformOnlineMulaiMengolahPengalamanLebihMatang.docx **## TakSekadarMenawarkanTampilanSegarPlatformOnlineMulaiMengolahPengalamanLebihMatang.docx** ## Tak Sekadar Menawarkan Tampilan Segar, Platform Online Mulai Mengolah Pengalaman Lebih Matang Per…
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## Tak Sekadar Menawarkan Tampilan Segar, Platform Online Mulai Mengolah Pengalaman Lebih Matang
Perkembangan platform online dalam beberapa tahun terakhir menunjukkan perubahan yang cukup menarik, karena perhatian terhadap sebuah layanan digital sekarang tidak lagi berhenti pada seberapa menarik tampilannya ketika pertama kali dibuka, tetapi mulai bergerak ke arah yang lebih menyeluruh, yaitu bagaimana setiap bagian di dalamnya dapat menciptakan pengalaman yang terasa ringan, mudah dipahami, dan menyenangkan bagi pengguna dari awal hingga akhir. Tampilan yang segar memang masih menjadi daya tarik penting, tetapi desain yang bagus tanpa dukungan navigasi yang jelas, akses yang lancar, serta susunan informasi yang masuk akal bisa terasa seperti rumah dengan fasad cantik tetapi pintunya susah dicari.
Pengguna internet masa kini juga semakin terbiasa dengan platform yang serba praktis, sehingga mereka cenderung cepat menyadari ketika sebuah halaman terasa rumit atau membutuhkan terlalu banyak langkah untuk melakukan sesuatu yang sebenarnya sederhana. Kebiasaan tersebut membuat platform online perlu memikirkan lebih banyak detail dibandingkan sekadar mengganti warna, menambahkan gambar, atau membuat tampilan terlihat modern. Cara menu disusun, posisi tombol, kecepatan halaman, kemampuan menyesuaikan layar, hingga bagaimana informasi ditampilkan secara bertahap menjadi bagian dari pengalaman yang ikut menentukan apakah pengguna merasa nyaman atau justru ingin berpindah ke tempat lain.
Menariknya, pengalaman digital yang matang tidak selalu harus terlihat rumit, karena justru banyak platform mulai menemukan bahwa kesederhanaan yang dipikirkan dengan baik dapat memberikan kesan yang jauh lebih menyenangkan. Pengguna tidak perlu mengetahui seluruh proses teknis yang terjadi di belakang layar, mereka hanya ingin membuka halaman dan merasa semuanya berjalan sebagaimana mestinya. Dari sinilah muncul pendekatan baru yang membuat platform online semakin serius mengolah pengalaman secara menyeluruh, bukan hanya mempercantik tampilan tetapi juga memastikan setiap interaksi terasa masuk akal.
·
**Tampilan Segar Kini Perlu Didukung Pengalaman Lebih Utuh**
Tampilan visual memang menjadi salah satu pintu masuk utama ketika seseorang mengenal sebuah platform online, karena halaman yang bersih, modern, dan memiliki komposisi menarik dapat langsung memberikan kesan positif dalam beberapa detik pertama. Namun, kesan tersebut hanya akan bertahan apabila pengalaman setelahnya juga mendukung apa yang sudah dijanjikan oleh tampilan awal, sebab pengguna tentu tidak akan terlalu peduli dengan desain yang cantik jika mereka kesulitan menemukan menu, tidak memahami fungsi tombol, atau harus menunggu terlalu lama ketika berpindah halaman.
Karena itu, platform online mulai melihat desain sebagai bagian dari pengalaman yang lebih besar, bukan sebagai elemen yang berdiri sendiri dan hanya bertugas membuat halaman terlihat menarik. Setiap warna, ikon, jenis tulisan, jarak antarbagian, hingga posisi navigasi dapat memiliki fungsi tertentu untuk membantu pengguna memahami apa yang sedang mereka lihat dan ke mana mereka dapat melangkah berikutnya, sehingga tampilan yang baik bukan hanya enak dipandang tetapi juga mampu memberikan petunjuk secara halus tanpa membuat pengguna merasa sedang membaca buku petunjuk penggunaan.
Perubahan cara pandang ini membuat pengalaman digital terasa lebih manusiawi karena platform mulai mempertimbangkan bagaimana seseorang benar-benar menggunakan halaman tersebut dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Ada pengguna yang hanya ingin mencari informasi dengan cepat, ada yang suka menjelajah dari satu bagian ke bagian lain, dan ada pula yang sekadar membuka platform melalui ponsel ketika sedang memiliki waktu luang, sehingga desain yang matang perlu cukup fleksibel untuk mengikuti berbagai kebiasaan tersebut tanpa membuat siapa pun merasa kesulitan.
### Navigasi Rapi Membuat Perjalanan Digital Terasa Mengalir
Navigasi menjadi salah satu elemen yang sering kali tidak terlalu diperhatikan ketika semuanya berjalan baik, tetapi langsung terasa penting ketika sebuah platform membuat pengguna kebingungan. Menu yang tersusun secara logis, kategori yang mudah dimengerti, serta tombol yang ditempatkan pada lokasi yang mudah ditemukan dapat membuat proses menjelajah terasa begitu alami sehingga pengguna tidak perlu berhenti untuk memikirkan langkah berikutnya, dan justru kondisi seperti inilah yang menjadi salah satu tanda bahwa sebuah platform sudah berhasil merancang pengalaman dengan baik.
Platform online
[situs dewapoker](https://realdewapoker.us.com/) yang matang biasanya tidak berusaha membuat seluruh pilihan terlihat sekaligus, karena terlalu banyak menu dalam satu halaman dapat membuat pengguna merasa seperti sedang berdiri di depan papan petunjuk yang penuh tulisan tanpa tahu harus mulai dari mana. Sebaliknya, informasi dan pilihan dapat disusun berdasarkan tingkat kepentingannya sehingga pengguna memperoleh gambaran yang cukup tanpa merasa dibombardir oleh terlalu banyak hal dalam waktu bersamaan, sebuah pendekatan sederhana yang ternyata mampu membuat pengalaman terasa jauh lebih santai.
Hal tersebut juga membuat navigasi tidak sekadar berfungsi sebagai alat untuk berpindah halaman, tetapi menjadi semacam pemandu yang membantu pengguna memahami struktur sebuah platform tanpa harus mempelajarinya secara khusus. Ketika seseorang dapat menemukan apa yang dicari dengan sedikit usaha, mereka akan merasa bahwa platform tersebut memang dirancang dengan mempertimbangkan kebutuhan mereka, dan perasaan kecil semacam itu bisa menjadi alasan yang cukup kuat untuk membuat pengguna kembali lagi di kemudian hari.
·
**Responsif Menjadi Syarat Penting Dalam Aktivitas Digital**
Cara orang mengakses internet sekarang sangat beragam, sehingga platform online tidak lagi bisa hanya memikirkan pengalaman untuk satu jenis perangkat saja. Ponsel menjadi salah satu perangkat utama untuk berbagai aktivitas digital, sementara laptop dan tablet tetap digunakan untuk kebutuhan tertentu, sehingga sebuah platform perlu memastikan tampilannya dapat menyesuaikan ukuran layar dengan baik tanpa membuat elemen penting berantakan atau sulit digunakan ketika pengguna berpindah perangkat.
Pengalaman responsif bukan hanya tentang membuat halaman terlihat lebih kecil ketika dibuka melalui ponsel, karena ada banyak aspek lain yang perlu diperhatikan agar interaksi tetap terasa nyaman. Ukuran tombol harus cukup mudah disentuh, teks harus tetap terbaca, gambar perlu menyesuaikan ruang yang tersedia, dan menu harus dapat dibuka tanpa mengganggu bagian lain di halaman, sehingga pengguna bisa melakukan aktivitas yang sama dengan cara yang relatif konsisten meskipun perangkat yang digunakan berbeda.
Kenyamanan semacam ini menjadi semakin penting karena pengguna digital sering berpindah perangkat sesuai situasi tanpa merasa perlu memikirkan teknologi yang ada di baliknya. Mereka mungkin memulai penjelajahan dari ponsel, kemudian melanjutkannya melalui laptop, dan berharap pengalaman yang didapat tetap terasa familiar, sehingga platform yang mampu menjaga konsistensi tersebut akan terlihat lebih siap menghadapi pola penggunaan digital yang semakin fleksibel dan tidak terpaku pada satu layar saja.
·
**Kecepatan Akses Ikut Membentuk Kesan Pengguna Sehari-Hari**
Kecepatan halaman juga menjadi bagian penting dari pengalaman karena tidak ada pengguna yang benar-benar menikmati proses menunggu halaman terbuka terlalu lama, terutama ketika mereka hanya ingin melakukan sesuatu yang sederhana. Meskipun tampilan sebuah platform terlihat menarik, halaman yang lambat dapat membuat kesan positif tersebut berkurang dengan cepat, karena pengguna akan lebih mudah mengingat rasa kesal ketika menunggu dibandingkan mengingat detail visual yang sebenarnya sudah dirancang dengan baik.
Platform online kemudian mulai memperhatikan bagaimana berbagai elemen dapat bekerja secara efisien tanpa mengurangi kualitas tampilan yang ingin ditampilkan. Gambar, animasi, fitur interaktif, dan komponen lainnya perlu ditempatkan dengan pertimbangan yang tepat agar halaman tidak terasa terlalu berat, karena pengalaman yang menyenangkan bukan hanya soal apa yang terlihat di layar tetapi juga seberapa cepat pengguna dapat berinteraksi dengan hal tersebut.
Ketika kecepatan dan desain dapat berjalan berdampingan, pengguna mendapatkan pengalaman yang terasa lebih mulus tanpa perlu mengetahui berbagai proses teknis yang terjadi di belakang layar. Mereka cukup membuka halaman, menemukan bagian yang dibutuhkan, berpindah menu, lalu melanjutkan aktivitas tanpa gangguan berarti, dan justru pengalaman yang terasa biasa saja seperti inilah yang sebenarnya menunjukkan bahwa sebuah platform sudah bekerja dengan cukup matang.
#### Interaksi Kecil Bisa Membuat Platform Terasa Lebih Bersahabat
Selain navigasi, visual, dan kecepatan, interaksi kecil juga mulai mendapat perhatian karena detail sederhana dapat memberikan pengaruh terhadap bagaimana pengguna merasakan sebuah platform. Perubahan tombol ketika disentuh, indikator ketika halaman sedang dimuat, pesan yang muncul setelah sebuah tindakan berhasil, atau petunjuk singkat ketika pengguna melakukan sesuatu yang belum sesuai dapat membuat platform terasa lebih responsif dan seolah memahami apa yang sedang dilakukan oleh penggunanya.
Interaksi tersebut tidak harus dibuat berlebihan dengan animasi yang memenuhi layar, karena tujuan utamanya adalah memberikan informasi atau respons yang membantu, bukan membuat pengguna sibuk melihat efek visual. Ketika sebuah tombol memberikan tanda bahwa perintah sudah diterima atau sebuah halaman memberi penjelasan ketika terjadi kesalahan, pengguna akan lebih mudah memahami situasi dan tidak merasa seperti sedang berkomunikasi dengan sistem yang sama sekali tidak memberikan respons.
Pendekatan ini membuat platform online terasa lebih bersahabat karena pengguna memperoleh semacam umpan balik selama melakukan berbagai aktivitas. Mereka tahu apakah sesuatu sedang diproses, berhasil dilakukan, atau membutuhkan tindakan tambahan, sehingga perjalanan digital terasa lebih jelas dan tidak penuh tebakan, dan meskipun detail tersebut terlihat kecil, kumpulan interaksi sederhana dapat membuat pengalaman secara keseluruhan terasa jauh lebih matang.
**FAQ Seputar Pengalaman Platform Online yang Lebih Matang**
**Mengapa tampilan menarik saja belum cukup bagi platform online?**
Tampilan menarik memang dapat memberikan kesan pertama yang positif, tetapi pengalaman pengguna tidak berhenti ketika halaman berhasil membuat seseorang tertarik. Setelah itu, pengguna masih perlu menemukan menu, membaca informasi, menggunakan fitur, berpindah halaman, dan melakukan berbagai aktivitas lainnya, sehingga desain yang baik perlu didukung oleh navigasi yang jelas, kecepatan akses yang memadai, serta interaksi yang mudah dipahami agar kesan positif tersebut dapat bertahan lebih lama.
**Apa yang dimaksud dengan pengalaman digital yang matang?**
Pengalaman digital yang matang dapat dipahami sebagai kondisi ketika berbagai elemen dalam sebuah platform bekerja secara harmonis untuk membantu pengguna menyelesaikan tujuan mereka dengan mudah. Pengguna tidak harus memikirkan terlalu banyak hal ketika menggunakan platform karena menu mudah ditemukan, tampilan tidak membingungkan, halaman dapat menyesuaikan perangkat, serta setiap tindakan memperoleh respons yang cukup jelas.
**Apakah navigasi sederhana selalu menjadi pilihan terbaik?**
Navigasi sederhana umumnya membantu pengguna bergerak dengan lebih mudah, tetapi sederhana bukan berarti harus menghilangkan semua pilihan atau fitur yang tersedia. Yang lebih penting adalah bagaimana pilihan tersebut dikelompokkan dan disajikan sehingga pengguna dapat memahami struktur platform tanpa merasa kewalahan ketika melihat banyak menu dalam satu waktu.
**Mengapa platform perlu dibuat responsif?**
Platform perlu responsif karena pengguna dapat mengaksesnya melalui berbagai perangkat dengan ukuran layar yang berbeda. Tampilan yang dapat menyesuaikan diri membantu menjaga kenyamanan penggunaan, terutama ketika seseorang berpindah dari komputer ke ponsel atau sebaliknya, sehingga pengalaman tidak terasa berubah secara drastis hanya karena perangkat yang digunakan berbeda.
**Pengalaman Matang Menjadi Pembeda Platform Online Masa Kini**
Perubahan pendekatan pada platform online menunjukkan bahwa pengalaman pengguna semakin dianggap sebagai bagian penting dari keseluruhan identitas sebuah layanan digital. Tampilan segar memang mampu menarik perhatian, tetapi pengalaman yang nyaman, navigasi yang mengalir, akses yang responsif, kecepatan yang baik, serta interaksi yang jelas membuat pengguna memiliki alasan lebih kuat untuk tetap menjelajah dan kembali menggunakan platform tersebut ketika mereka membutuhkannya.
Pada akhirnya, platform yang benar-benar memahami kebutuhan pengguna tidak harus selalu menjadi yang paling ramai, paling penuh fitur, atau paling mencolok secara visual, karena pengalaman yang terasa sederhana dan lancar sering kali justru lebih berkesan. Ketika seseorang dapat membuka halaman, memahami isinya, menemukan bagian yang dicari, dan berpindah dari satu fitur ke fitur lain tanpa merasa dipusingkan, berarti platform tersebut sudah berhasil mengurangi berbagai hambatan kecil yang sering tidak disadari pengguna.
Perkembangan ini memperlihatkan bahwa masa depan platform online bukan hanya tentang siapa yang mampu menghadirkan tampilan paling menarik, tetapi juga siapa yang mampu merancang pengalaman secara lebih menyeluruh dan memahami bagaimana pengguna benar-benar berinteraksi dengan ruang digital. Dengan menggabungkan visual yang segar, navigasi yang tertata, akses responsif, performa yang ringan, serta interaksi yang terasa natural, platform online dapat menciptakan pengalaman yang bukan hanya terlihat bagus di awal, tetapi juga tetap nyaman ketika digunakan berkali-kali.
**## TakSekadarMenawarkanTampilanSegarPlatformOnlineMulaiMengolahPengalamanLebihMatang.docx**
## Tak Sekadar Menawarkan Tampilan Segar, Platform Online Mulai Mengolah Pengalaman Lebih Matang
Perkembangan platform online dalam beberapa tahun terakhir menunjukkan perubahan yang cukup menarik, karena perhatian terhadap sebuah layanan digital sekarang tidak lagi berhenti pada seberapa menarik tampilannya ketika pertama kali dibuka, tetapi mulai bergerak ke arah yang lebih menyeluruh, yaitu bagaimana setiap bagian di dalamnya dapat menciptakan pengalaman yang terasa ringan, mudah dipahami, dan menyenangkan bagi pengguna dari awal hingga akhir. Tampilan yang segar memang masih menjadi daya tarik penting, tetapi desain yang bagus tanpa dukungan navigasi yang jelas, akses yang lancar, serta susunan informasi yang masuk akal bisa terasa seperti rumah dengan fasad cantik tetapi pintunya susah dicari.
Pengguna internet masa kini juga semakin terbiasa dengan platform yang serba praktis, sehingga mereka cenderung cepat menyadari ketika sebuah halaman terasa rumit atau membutuhkan terlalu banyak langkah untuk melakukan sesuatu yang sebenarnya sederhana. Kebiasaan tersebut membuat platform online perlu memikirkan lebih banyak detail dibandingkan sekadar mengganti warna, menambahkan gambar, atau membuat tampilan terlihat modern. Cara menu disusun, posisi tombol, kecepatan halaman, kemampuan menyesuaikan layar, hingga bagaimana informasi ditampilkan secara bertahap menjadi bagian dari pengalaman yang ikut menentukan apakah pengguna merasa nyaman atau justru ingin berpindah ke tempat lain.
Menariknya, pengalaman digital yang matang tidak selalu harus terlihat rumit, karena justru banyak platform mulai menemukan bahwa kesederhanaan yang dipikirkan dengan baik dapat memberikan kesan yang jauh lebih menyenangkan. Pengguna tidak perlu mengetahui seluruh proses teknis yang terjadi di belakang layar, mereka hanya ingin membuka halaman dan merasa semuanya berjalan sebagaimana mestinya. Dari sinilah muncul pendekatan baru yang membuat platform online semakin serius mengolah pengalaman secara menyeluruh, bukan hanya mempercantik tampilan tetapi juga memastikan setiap interaksi terasa masuk akal.
·
**Tampilan Segar Kini Perlu Didukung Pengalaman Lebih Utuh**
Tampilan visual memang menjadi salah satu pintu masuk utama ketika seseorang mengenal sebuah platform online, karena halaman yang bersih, modern, dan memiliki komposisi menarik dapat langsung memberikan kesan positif dalam beberapa detik pertama. Namun, kesan tersebut hanya akan bertahan apabila pengalaman setelahnya juga mendukung apa yang sudah dijanjikan oleh tampilan awal, sebab pengguna tentu tidak akan terlalu peduli dengan desain yang cantik jika mereka kesulitan menemukan menu, tidak memahami fungsi tombol, atau harus menunggu terlalu lama ketika berpindah halaman.
Karena itu, platform online mulai melihat desain sebagai bagian dari pengalaman yang lebih besar, bukan sebagai elemen yang berdiri sendiri dan hanya bertugas membuat halaman terlihat menarik. Setiap warna, ikon, jenis tulisan, jarak antarbagian, hingga posisi navigasi dapat memiliki fungsi tertentu untuk membantu pengguna memahami apa yang sedang mereka lihat dan ke mana mereka dapat melangkah berikutnya, sehingga tampilan yang baik bukan hanya enak dipandang tetapi juga mampu memberikan petunjuk secara halus tanpa membuat pengguna merasa sedang membaca buku petunjuk penggunaan.
Perubahan cara pandang ini membuat pengalaman digital terasa lebih manusiawi karena platform mulai mempertimbangkan bagaimana seseorang benar-benar menggunakan halaman tersebut dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Ada pengguna yang hanya ingin mencari informasi dengan cepat, ada yang suka menjelajah dari satu bagian ke bagian lain, dan ada pula yang sekadar membuka platform melalui ponsel ketika sedang memiliki waktu luang, sehingga desain yang matang perlu cukup fleksibel untuk mengikuti berbagai kebiasaan tersebut tanpa membuat siapa pun merasa kesulitan.
### Navigasi Rapi Membuat Perjalanan Digital Terasa Mengalir
Navigasi menjadi salah satu elemen yang sering kali tidak terlalu diperhatikan ketika semuanya berjalan baik, tetapi langsung terasa penting ketika sebuah platform membuat pengguna kebingungan. Menu yang tersusun secara logis, kategori yang mudah dimengerti, serta tombol yang ditempatkan pada lokasi yang mudah ditemukan dapat membuat proses menjelajah terasa begitu alami sehingga pengguna tidak perlu berhenti untuk memikirkan langkah berikutnya, dan justru kondisi seperti inilah yang menjadi salah satu tanda bahwa sebuah platform sudah berhasil merancang pengalaman dengan baik.
Platform online
[situs dewapoker](https://realdewapoker.us.com/) yang matang biasanya tidak berusaha membuat seluruh pilihan terlihat sekaligus, karena terlalu banyak menu dalam satu halaman dapat membuat pengguna merasa seperti sedang berdiri di depan papan petunjuk yang penuh tulisan tanpa tahu harus mulai dari mana. Sebaliknya, informasi dan pilihan dapat disusun berdasarkan tingkat kepentingannya sehingga pengguna memperoleh gambaran yang cukup tanpa merasa dibombardir oleh terlalu banyak hal dalam waktu bersamaan, sebuah pendekatan sederhana yang ternyata mampu membuat pengalaman terasa jauh lebih santai.
Hal tersebut juga membuat navigasi tidak sekadar berfungsi sebagai alat untuk berpindah halaman, tetapi menjadi semacam pemandu yang membantu pengguna memahami struktur sebuah platform tanpa harus mempelajarinya secara khusus. Ketika seseorang dapat menemukan apa yang dicari dengan sedikit usaha, mereka akan merasa bahwa platform tersebut memang dirancang dengan mempertimbangkan kebutuhan mereka, dan perasaan kecil semacam itu bisa menjadi alasan yang cukup kuat untuk membuat pengguna kembali lagi di kemudian hari.
·
**Responsif Menjadi Syarat Penting Dalam Aktivitas Digital**
Cara orang mengakses internet sekarang sangat beragam, sehingga platform online tidak lagi bisa hanya memikirkan pengalaman untuk satu jenis perangkat saja. Ponsel menjadi salah satu perangkat utama untuk berbagai aktivitas digital, sementara laptop dan tablet tetap digunakan untuk kebutuhan tertentu, sehingga sebuah platform perlu memastikan tampilannya dapat menyesuaikan ukuran layar dengan baik tanpa membuat elemen penting berantakan atau sulit digunakan ketika pengguna berpindah perangkat.
Pengalaman responsif bukan hanya tentang membuat halaman terlihat lebih kecil ketika dibuka melalui ponsel, karena ada banyak aspek lain yang perlu diperhatikan agar interaksi tetap terasa nyaman. Ukuran tombol harus cukup mudah disentuh, teks harus tetap terbaca, gambar perlu menyesuaikan ruang yang tersedia, dan menu harus dapat dibuka tanpa mengganggu bagian lain di halaman, sehingga pengguna bisa melakukan aktivitas yang sama dengan cara yang relatif konsisten meskipun perangkat yang digunakan berbeda.
Kenyamanan semacam ini menjadi semakin penting karena pengguna digital sering berpindah perangkat sesuai situasi tanpa merasa perlu memikirkan teknologi yang ada di baliknya. Mereka mungkin memulai penjelajahan dari ponsel, kemudian melanjutkannya melalui laptop, dan berharap pengalaman yang didapat tetap terasa familiar, sehingga platform yang mampu menjaga konsistensi tersebut akan terlihat lebih siap menghadapi pola penggunaan digital yang semakin fleksibel dan tidak terpaku pada satu layar saja.
·
**Kecepatan Akses Ikut Membentuk Kesan Pengguna Sehari-Hari**
Kecepatan halaman juga menjadi bagian penting dari pengalaman karena tidak ada pengguna yang benar-benar menikmati proses menunggu halaman terbuka terlalu lama, terutama ketika mereka hanya ingin melakukan sesuatu yang sederhana. Meskipun tampilan sebuah platform terlihat menarik, halaman yang lambat dapat membuat kesan positif tersebut berkurang dengan cepat, karena pengguna akan lebih mudah mengingat rasa kesal ketika menunggu dibandingkan mengingat detail visual yang sebenarnya sudah dirancang dengan baik.
Platform online kemudian mulai memperhatikan bagaimana berbagai elemen dapat bekerja secara efisien tanpa mengurangi kualitas tampilan yang ingin ditampilkan. Gambar, animasi, fitur interaktif, dan komponen lainnya perlu ditempatkan dengan pertimbangan yang tepat agar halaman tidak terasa terlalu berat, karena pengalaman yang menyenangkan bukan hanya soal apa yang terlihat di layar tetapi juga seberapa cepat pengguna dapat berinteraksi dengan hal tersebut.
Ketika kecepatan dan desain dapat berjalan berdampingan, pengguna mendapatkan pengalaman yang terasa lebih mulus tanpa perlu mengetahui berbagai proses teknis yang terjadi di belakang layar. Mereka cukup membuka halaman, menemukan bagian yang dibutuhkan, berpindah menu, lalu melanjutkan aktivitas tanpa gangguan berarti, dan justru pengalaman yang terasa biasa saja seperti inilah yang sebenarnya menunjukkan bahwa sebuah platform sudah bekerja dengan cukup matang.
#### Interaksi Kecil Bisa Membuat Platform Terasa Lebih Bersahabat
Selain navigasi, visual, dan kecepatan, interaksi kecil juga mulai mendapat perhatian karena detail sederhana dapat memberikan pengaruh terhadap bagaimana pengguna merasakan sebuah platform. Perubahan tombol ketika disentuh, indikator ketika halaman sedang dimuat, pesan yang muncul setelah sebuah tindakan berhasil, atau petunjuk singkat ketika pengguna melakukan sesuatu yang belum sesuai dapat membuat platform terasa lebih responsif dan seolah memahami apa yang sedang dilakukan oleh penggunanya.
Interaksi tersebut tidak harus dibuat berlebihan dengan animasi yang memenuhi layar, karena tujuan utamanya adalah memberikan informasi atau respons yang membantu, bukan membuat pengguna sibuk melihat efek visual. Ketika sebuah tombol memberikan tanda bahwa perintah sudah diterima atau sebuah halaman memberi penjelasan ketika terjadi kesalahan, pengguna akan lebih mudah memahami situasi dan tidak merasa seperti sedang berkomunikasi dengan sistem yang sama sekali tidak memberikan respons.
Pendekatan ini membuat platform online terasa lebih bersahabat karena pengguna memperoleh semacam umpan balik selama melakukan berbagai aktivitas. Mereka tahu apakah sesuatu sedang diproses, berhasil dilakukan, atau membutuhkan tindakan tambahan, sehingga perjalanan digital terasa lebih jelas dan tidak penuh tebakan, dan meskipun detail tersebut terlihat kecil, kumpulan interaksi sederhana dapat membuat pengalaman secara keseluruhan terasa jauh lebih matang.
**FAQ Seputar Pengalaman Platform Online yang Lebih Matang**
**Mengapa tampilan menarik saja belum cukup bagi platform online?**
Tampilan menarik memang dapat memberikan kesan pertama yang positif, tetapi pengalaman pengguna tidak berhenti ketika halaman berhasil membuat seseorang tertarik. Setelah itu, pengguna masih perlu menemukan menu, membaca informasi, menggunakan fitur, berpindah halaman, dan melakukan berbagai aktivitas lainnya, sehingga desain yang baik perlu didukung oleh navigasi yang jelas, kecepatan akses yang memadai, serta interaksi yang mudah dipahami agar kesan positif tersebut dapat bertahan lebih lama.
**Apa yang dimaksud dengan pengalaman digital yang matang?**
Pengalaman digital yang matang dapat dipahami sebagai kondisi ketika berbagai elemen dalam sebuah platform bekerja secara harmonis untuk membantu pengguna menyelesaikan tujuan mereka dengan mudah. Pengguna tidak harus memikirkan terlalu banyak hal ketika menggunakan platform karena menu mudah ditemukan, tampilan tidak membingungkan, halaman dapat menyesuaikan perangkat, serta setiap tindakan memperoleh respons yang cukup jelas.
**Apakah navigasi sederhana selalu menjadi pilihan terbaik?**
Navigasi sederhana umumnya membantu pengguna bergerak dengan lebih mudah, tetapi sederhana bukan berarti harus menghilangkan semua pilihan atau fitur yang tersedia. Yang lebih penting adalah bagaimana pilihan tersebut dikelompokkan dan disajikan sehingga pengguna dapat memahami struktur platform tanpa merasa kewalahan ketika melihat banyak menu dalam satu waktu.
**Mengapa platform perlu dibuat responsif?**
Platform perlu responsif karena pengguna dapat mengaksesnya melalui berbagai perangkat dengan ukuran layar yang berbeda. Tampilan yang dapat menyesuaikan diri membantu menjaga kenyamanan penggunaan, terutama ketika seseorang berpindah dari komputer ke ponsel atau sebaliknya, sehingga pengalaman tidak terasa berubah secara drastis hanya karena perangkat yang digunakan berbeda.
**Pengalaman Matang Menjadi Pembeda Platform Online Masa Kini**
Perubahan pendekatan pada platform online menunjukkan bahwa pengalaman pengguna semakin dianggap sebagai bagian penting dari keseluruhan identitas sebuah layanan digital. Tampilan segar memang mampu menarik perhatian, tetapi pengalaman yang nyaman, navigasi yang mengalir, akses yang responsif, kecepatan yang baik, serta interaksi yang jelas membuat pengguna memiliki alasan lebih kuat untuk tetap menjelajah dan kembali menggunakan platform tersebut ketika mereka membutuhkannya.
Pada akhirnya, platform yang benar-benar memahami kebutuhan pengguna tidak harus selalu menjadi yang paling ramai, paling penuh fitur, atau paling mencolok secara visual, karena pengalaman yang terasa sederhana dan lancar sering kali justru lebih berkesan. Ketika seseorang dapat membuka halaman, memahami isinya, menemukan bagian yang dicari, dan berpindah dari satu fitur ke fitur lain tanpa merasa dipusingkan, berarti platform tersebut sudah berhasil mengurangi berbagai hambatan kecil yang sering tidak disadari pengguna.
Perkembangan ini memperlihatkan bahwa masa depan platform online bukan hanya tentang siapa yang mampu menghadirkan tampilan paling menarik, tetapi juga siapa yang mampu merancang pengalaman secara lebih menyeluruh dan memahami bagaimana pengguna benar-benar berinteraksi dengan ruang digital. Dengan menggabungkan visual yang segar, navigasi yang tertata, akses responsif, performa yang ringan, serta interaksi yang terasa natural, platform online dapat menciptakan pengalaman yang bukan hanya terlihat bagus di awal, tetapi juga tetap nyaman ketika digunakan berkali-kali.
**files (2)** – ## Disc3NarrativeDevicespart2PansLabyrinth-Fall2026FINART104WW20W.pdf – Narrative_devices26.pptx **## Disc3NarrativeDevicespart2PansLabyrinth-Fall2026FINART104WW20W.pdf** Disc3, Narrative Devices, part 2, Pan's Labyrinth Each week you are required to post a 5 – 8 sentence response t…
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– ## Disc3NarrativeDevicespart2PansLabyrinth-Fall2026FINART104WW20W.pdf
– Narrative_devices26.pptx
**## Disc3NarrativeDevicespart2PansLabyrinth-Fall2026FINART104WW20W.pdf**
Disc3, Narrative Devices, part 2, Pan's Labyrinth
Each week you are required to post a 5 – 8 sentence response to the
prompt that you have chosen for that week, and then respond to two other
students in a way that promotes further conversation. These discussion
postings are due by 11:30 pm on Sunday. There is a rubric associated with
the postings.
For each discussion posting, I am assessing whether you can accurately
apply the vocabulary of concept of the module. Be sure, then, to define
your terms, then apply the terms to a scene or two in each posting.
A good discussion board post is like a short essay. It has a main claim that
is supported with well-developed evidence. It is clearly organized and cites
references to scenes from the film that you have chosen. A comment upon
someone else's post should not just be a simple agreement or
disagreement. Your comment should say what specifically you agree or
disagree with and why. You should give your own evidence for why you
agree, not just repeat what the previous poster has already said. As with
every writing task, remember your audience and purpose when crafting
your discussion board posts. The tone and content should be appropriate
to context of a learning community.
But not all directors want to make the narrative choices as obvious as in
Vagabond. Consider, for instance, the film for this posting, which uses
folktale motifs to explore the violence and abuses during Franco’s regime.
For this discussion question, pick one folktale motif from the Narrative
https://brightspace.ccc.edu/d2l/le/content/396034/viewContent/18752075/View 10/6/26, 9:06 PM
Page 1 of 3
Reflect in ePortfolio
Due October 11 at 11:59 PM
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Devices PowerPoint, apply it to a scene and explain the folktale motif
represented in the scene. Include the characteristics of the folktale motif
you’ve chosen and why you think del Toro has used it here. Be sure to be
explicit about the contrast between our understanding of the folktale motif
and how it is similar or different from other examples from literature.
All Threads
https://brightspace.ccc.edu/d2l/le/content/396034/viewContent/18752075/View 10/6/26, 9:06 PM
Page 2 of 3
https://brightspace.ccc.edu/d2l/le/content/396034/viewContent/18752075/View 10/6/26, 9:06 PM
Page 3 of 3
**Narrative_devices26.pptx**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/narrative-devices26-pptx-10608175)
**Narrative_devices26.pptx**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/narrative-devices26-pptx-10608175)
**## Disc3NarrativeDevicespart2PansLabyrinth-Fall2026FINART104WW20W.pdf**
Disc3, Narrative Devices, part 2, Pan's Labyrinth
Each week you are required to post a 5 – 8 sentence response to the
prompt that you have chosen for that week, and then respond to two other
students in a way that promotes further conversation. These discussion
postings are due by 11:30 pm on Sunday. There is a rubric associated with
the postings.
For each discussion posting, I am assessing whether you can accurately
apply the vocabulary of concept of the module. Be sure, then, to define
your terms, then apply the terms to a scene or two in each posting.
A good discussion board post is like a short essay. It has a main claim that
is supported with well-developed evidence. It is clearly organized and cites
references to scenes from the film that you have chosen. A comment upon
someone else's post should not just be a simple agreement or
disagreement. Your comment should say what specifically you agree or
disagree with and why. You should give your own evidence for why you
agree, not just repeat what the previous poster has already said. As with
every writing task, remember your audience and purpose when crafting
your discussion board posts. The tone and content should be appropriate
to context of a learning community.
But not all directors want to make the narrative choices as obvious as in
Vagabond. Consider, for instance, the film for this posting, which uses
folktale motifs to explore the violence and abuses during Franco’s regime.
For this discussion question, pick one folktale motif from the Narrative
https://brightspace.ccc.edu/d2l/le/content/396034/viewContent/18752075/View 10/6/26, 9:06 PM
Page 1 of 3
Reflect in ePortfolio
Due October 11 at 11:59 PM
Rubrics
Discussion Postings
Start a New Thread
Filter by:
Sort by:
Oldest Thread
You must start a thread before you can read and reply to other threads
Start a New Thread
Activity Details
Task: Reply to this topic Assessment
Discussion Postings
Last Visited Oct 5, 2026 10:02 PM
Devices PowerPoint, apply it to a scene and explain the folktale motif
represented in the scene. Include the characteristics of the folktale motif
you’ve chosen and why you think del Toro has used it here. Be sure to be
explicit about the contrast between our understanding of the folktale motif
and how it is similar or different from other examples from literature.
All Threads
https://brightspace.ccc.edu/d2l/le/content/396034/viewContent/18752075/View 10/6/26, 9:06 PM
Page 2 of 3
https://brightspace.ccc.edu/d2l/le/content/396034/viewContent/18752075/View 10/6/26, 9:06 PM
Page 3 of 3
**Narrative_devices26.pptx**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/narrative-devices26-pptx-10608175)
**## Disc3NarrativeDevicespart2PansLabyrinth-Fall2026FINART104WW20W.pdf**
Disc3, Narrative Devices, part 2, Pan's Labyrinth
Each week you are required to post a 5 – 8 sentence response to the
prompt that you have chosen for that week, and then respond to two other
students in a way that promotes further conversation. These discussion
postings are due by 11:30 pm on Sunday. There is a rubric associated with
the postings.
For each discussion posting, I am assessing whether you can accurately
apply the vocabulary of concept of the module. Be sure, then, to define
your terms, then apply the terms to a scene or two in each posting.
A good discussion board post is like a short essay. It has a main claim that
is supported with well-developed evidence. It is clearly organized and cites
references to scenes from the film that you have chosen. A comment upon
someone else's post should not just be a simple agreement or
disagreement. Your comment should say what specifically you agree or
disagree with and why. You should give your own evidence for why you
agree, not just repeat what the previous poster has already said. As with
every writing task, remember your audience and purpose when crafting
your discussion board posts. The tone and content should be appropriate
to context of a learning community.
But not all directors want to make the narrative choices as obvious as in
Vagabond. Consider, for instance, the film for this posting, which uses
folktale motifs to explore the violence and abuses during Franco’s regime.
For this discussion question, pick one folktale motif from the Narrative
https://brightspace.ccc.edu/d2l/le/content/396034/viewContent/18752075/View 10/6/26, 9:06 PM
Page 1 of 3
Reflect in ePortfolio
Due October 11 at 11:59 PM
Rubrics
Discussion Postings
Start a New Thread
Filter by:
Sort by:
Oldest Thread
You must start a thread before you can read and reply to other threads
Start a New Thread
Activity Details
Task: Reply to this topic Assessment
Discussion Postings
Last Visited Oct 5, 2026 10:02 PM
Devices PowerPoint, apply it to a scene and explain the folktale motif
represented in the scene. Include the characteristics of the folktale motif
you’ve chosen and why you think del Toro has used it here. Be sure to be
explicit about the contrast between our understanding of the folktale motif
and how it is similar or different from other examples from literature.
All Threads
https://brightspace.ccc.edu/d2l/le/content/396034/viewContent/18752075/View 10/6/26, 9:06 PM
Page 2 of 3
https://brightspace.ccc.edu/d2l/le/content/396034/viewContent/18752075/View 10/6/26, 9:06 PM
Page 3 of 3
**Narrative_devices26.pptx**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/narrative-devices26-pptx-10608175)
(Book: [Konopaske, Ivancevich, & Matteson: Organizational Behavior and Management)](https://canvas.liberty.edu/courses/1078094/modules/items/109033952 "Konopaske, Ivancevich, & Matteson: Organizational Behavior and Management") This week we have reviewed several different leadership styles through o…
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Order on TutorsGallery →(Book: [Konopaske, Ivancevich, & Matteson: Organizational Behavior and Management)](https://canvas.liberty.edu/courses/1078094/modules/items/109033952 "Konopaske, Ivancevich, & Matteson: Organizational Behavior and Management")
This week we have reviewed several different leadership styles through our reading and study.
We will now compare those styles to real-world examples of leadership in action and compare
what we have studied against the experiences of leaders through a series of interview questions
and an evaluation of a current scholarly article that relates to the type of leadership displayed by
your interviewee.
INSTRUCTIONS
For this assignment, you will interview someone you know who is or has been in, a leadership
role. You will also research and present information gathered regarding leadership styles from an
article sourced from the Jerry Falwell Library that correlates or connects to the type of leader you
will interview. Your final assignment should include the following:
• Title page
• 2 pages of content (500-750 words)
• 1 citation from our textbook, 1 citation from your chosen scholarly article, and 1 citation
from scripture (including book, chapter, and verse). The chosen scholarly article should
be published within the last five years.
• A summary of the content and responses from the interview based on the interview
questions listed below. You may add additional questions, but the questions below must
be included in the interview.
• Based upon the responses from the interview, describe the leadership style of the person
you interviewed:
o Which of the leadership styles covered in the textbook does this leader exhibit?
o Describe the actions of the leader and how this exhibits the identified level of
leadership.
• Biblical integration that clearly articulates how scripture and a biblical worldview can be
applied to the described leadership style. Ensure that you include scripture (book,
chapter, and verse).
• A summary of the article content themes/major takeaways and how this aligns with your
interviewee’s perspective on leadership.
• An APA formatted reference page.
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
• Name and position? What type of leadership role do they have/had in their organization
and how many individuals did they lead?
• How long have you (or did you) work in a leadership role?
• How do they lead their team each day? What percentage of your time do you spend
coaching and on personal tasks and productivity?
• What are (were) the most challenging aspects of leading the people on the team?
• How do (did) you handle and address conflict among group members?
• What are (were) the most rewarding aspects of leading the people on the team?
BUSI 240
• Are there ways in which you interact(ed) with and lead people on your team differently
from one another? If so, can you describe how?
• How do (did) you motivate the people on your team?
• Do you find teambuilding activities valuable? What are some activities you have done?
• How do (did) you invest in the people on your team?
• What advice would you give a new or aspiring leader or a lesson you have learned in
your position of leadership? Would you do anything different now, knowing what you
know?
Our study of ethics in business can sometimes seem esoteric and removed from day-to-day management responsibilities, but media are filled with real-life examples of unethical business behavior that harms the businesses involved, as well as their shareholders, customers, employees, and other stakehol…
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Have this question answered from scratch according to your specific instructions and deadline.
Order on TutorsGallery →Our study of ethics in business can sometimes seem esoteric and removed from day-to-day
management responsibilities, but media are filled with real-life examples of unethical business
behavior that harms the businesses involved, as well as their shareholders, customers, employees,
and other stakeholders. This assignment asks you to find such an example, examine what
went wrong, and apply the materials we’ve been reading to develop preventions and solutions.
Take an in-depth look at the situation through the lens of secular legal and ethical principles but
also through the lens of a Biblical worldview.
INSTRUCTIONS
Identify a news story that has been published within the 30 days preceding the due date of this
assignment that describes a breach of business ethics. You may find this through a web search,
library research, professional journals, professional association websites, newspapers, etc. The
breach may be criminal, based in tort, or otherwise unethical.
Your assignment will:
• Briefly explain the situation and the parties involved.
• Identify your ethical standard; explain how this situation violated that standard.
• Explain how you would have prevented this situation and would now respond, including
support from scholarly and Biblical sources.
Support your analysis with at least 3 scholarly sources other than the course materials (your
article will be one), properly cited in APA format in in-text citations and in a reference list.
You must also integrate Biblical worldview analysis, including at least 2 Biblical principles
with APA citations.
This assignment must contain at least 800 words and follow current APA format but does not
require an abstract. The title page and reference list do not count towards the length
requirement. Submit your assignment as a Word document
I want to buy a comfortable pet bed. Any suggestions from experienced pet owners?
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Order on TutorsGallery →I want to buy a comfortable pet bed. Any suggestions from experienced pet owners?