The chemistry of isotopes in cancer treatment. – 2 years ago
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Order on TutorsGallery →The chemistry of isotopes in cancer treatment.
– 2 years ago
The topic should be something of interest to you and the paper should discuss some aspect of the topic in a reasonably in-depth manner demonstrating your critical, evidence-based thinking. The things we talk about this semester in class are not off-limits but it is probably a good idea to use them a…
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Order on TutorsGallery →The topic should be something of interest to you and the paper should discuss some aspect of the topic
in a reasonably in-depth manner demonstrating your critical, evidence-based thinking. The things we
talk about this semester in class are not off-limits but it is probably a good idea to use them as ideas to
get you thinking about related topics that you would like to learn about. The final paper is essentially
expository writing style.
These guidelines are to give you a rough structure of what to follow. If you have any questions, please
discuss this with me and I can provide more guidance.
Requirements
• 3000 words in length (excluding direct quotes and citations)
• Abstract – A one paragraph overview of what the paper is about at the beginning of the paper
• Demonstrates evidence-based reasoning.
• Analysis. Clearly establish the relevance of facts and data to the overall narrative of the paper.
o Example of good anaysis: “A large increase was found that corresponded to 5% more
patients…”
o Each on its own is an example of bad: “A large increase…” or “5% of patients…”
• Use of numerous citations in text to reinforce claims made
o Citations need to use footnotes to indicate where the source is used.1 These are
superscripts which have the source listed at the end of the document.
1) Rose, B.D. “CHEM 113 Final Paper guidelines”
o For formatting the sources and citations, American Chemical Society is preferred, but
any format that is consistently used and referenced with footnotes in text is fine. See,
for example, http://library.williams.edu/citing/styles/acs.php
Best Papers Include
• Approximately 12-18 sources that help reinforce claims made.
• Figures when appropriate. They can allow for clear concise clarification and can include things
like:
o diagrams
o chemical equations
o chemical structures
o pictures
• No grammar errors. Have it proofread by friends, family, or the academic support center.
• No hyperbole
• Your informed opinion. You first need to establish that you are informed by presenting credible
information.
– 2 years ago
A pair of 100 mL samples of water are taken from a well bored into a large underground salt (NaCl) deposit. Sample #1 is from the top of the well, and is initially at 32 °C. Sample #2 is from a depth of 50. m, and is initially at 42 °C. Both samples are allowed to come to room temperature (20. °C) a…
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Order on TutorsGallery →A pair of 100 mL samples of water are taken from a well bored into a large underground salt (NaCl) deposit.
Sample #1 is from the top of the well, and is initially at 32 °C. Sample #2 is from a depth of 50. m, and is initially at 42 °C. Both samples are allowed to come to room temperature (20. °C) and 1 atm pressure. An NaCl precipitate is seen to form in Sample #1.
A bigger mass of NaCl precipitate will form in Sample # 2.
A smaller mass of NaCl precipitate will form in Sample #2.
• The same mass of NaCl precipitate will form in Sample #2.
No precipitate will form in Sample #2.
I need more information to predict whether and how much precipitate will form in Sample #2.
– [\
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Image4-17-25at3.38PM.jpeg](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/image4-17-25at3-38pm-jpeg "Image4-17-25at3.38PM.jpeg")
– 2 years ago
– 0.1
**Poster Instructions -** Create a poster of a famous scientist (use Word or PowerPoint–DO NOT submit other formats except .pdf!!!). **This is a one-page document**. Here's a link to the grading rubric ( [Scientist Poster](https://class.daytonastate.edu/d2l/common/dialogs/quickLink/quickLink.d2l?ou…
Immediate access to the full model answer, formatted citations, and rubric breakdown.
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Order on TutorsGallery →**Poster Instructions -** Create a poster of a famous scientist (use Word or PowerPoint–DO NOT submit other formats except .pdf!!!). **This is a one-page document**. Here's a link to the grading rubric ( [Scientist Poster](https://class.daytonastate.edu/d2l/common/dialogs/quickLink/quickLink.d2l?ou=473755&type=rubric&rCode=DBC-5017121)) and a link to a Word document template if you want to use it ( [Scientist poster template.docx](https://class.daytonastate.edu/d2l/common/dialogs/quickLink/quickLink.d2l?ou=473755&type=coursefile&fileId=Chemistry+Assignment+files%2fScientist+poster+template.docx)).
_**What should be on the poster:**_
1. MUST be neat and well done. Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
2. Mug shot – We need to know what they look(ed) like!
3. First, Middle, and Last name of your scientist, if available.
4. Birth Date and where they were born.
5. Year of Death and where they died, or are they still alive.
6. What are they famous for and where did they do their work? 5-8 sentence paragraph, in your own words, for full credit.
7. A fact that you found interesting OR a quote by that person.
8. Works cited / resources – at least 2 sources but more is better! (here is a link to the Library Infoguide about citations: [MLA Works Cited](https://library.daytonastate.edu/citation/MLAWorksCited)).
9. Creativity of poster – if you use the template, make it your own with color, etc! Or make your own 1-page poster! Be creative!
– [\
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Scientists.png](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/scientists-png "Scientists.png")
– 2 years ago
As part of our exploration of chemistry, find **a video** that talks about chemistry. I have provided some examples of chemistry topics. You are not restricted to these topics. You should look for information about a topic from a reliable source. I am not requiring that it be peer-reviewed, but it s…
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Have this question answered from scratch according to your specific instructions and deadline.
Order on TutorsGallery →As part of our exploration of chemistry, find **a video** that talks about chemistry.
I have provided some examples of chemistry topics. You are not restricted to these topics. You should look for information about a topic from a reliable source. I am not requiring that it be peer-reviewed, but it should not be an advertisement. For example, if you are doing a health-related topic, places like the Mayo Clinic are good sources. You want to avoid a company trying to sell you a product. If you are looking for ideas this might be a great topic for your muddy moment! _You do not need to select the same topic you picked for the article submission_!
For full credit on this post:
1. Write the TITLE of the video as your post title
2. Write the TITLE of the post AND a link in the body of your post. The link is not the title! _**DO NOT summarize the video**_! That's for your peers to do!
3. Explain why you picked the video by topic _**without**_ describing or summarizing the video.
4. Cite your source in your post (here is a link to the Library Infoguide about citations: [MLA Works Cited](https://library.daytonastate.edu/citation/MLAWorksCited))!
– [\
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Screenshot2025-04-22205059.png](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/screenshot2025-04-22205059-png "Screenshot2025-04-22205059.png")
– 2 years ago
[>Organic chemistry homework help](https://www.sweetstudy.com/fields/chemistry-organic-chemistry) – 2 years ago **files (1)** – ## Practice.docx **## Practice.docx**  | | | — | | IR Correlation Table | | C-H A…
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Have this question answered from scratch according to your specific instructions and deadline.
Order on TutorsGallery →[>Organic chemistry homework help](https://www.sweetstudy.com/fields/chemistry-organic-chemistry)
– 2 years ago
**files (1)**
– ## Practice.docx
**## Practice.docx**
| |
| — |
| IR Correlation Table |
| C-H Alkanes (stretch) 3000-2850 s<br> -CH3 (bend) 1450 & 1375 m<br> -CH2 (bend) 1465 m<br>Alkenes (stretch) 3100-3000 m<br>(out-of-plane) 1000-650 s<br>Aromatics (stretch) 3150-3050 s<br>(out-of-plane) 900-690 s<br>Alkyne (stretch) ~3300 s<br>Aldehyde 2900-2700 w<br>C=C Alkene 1680-1600 m-w<br>Aromatic 1600 & 1475 m, w<br>C≡C Alkyne 2250-2100 m-w<br>C=O Carbonyl 1780-1680 s<br>C-O ROH,ROR,ROOH,ROOR 1300-1000 s<br>O-H Alcohol, carboxylic acid 3600-3200 m<br>N-H (stretch) 3500-3100 m<br>(bend) 1640-1550 m-s<br>C-N Amines 1350-1000 m-s<br>C-X Alkyl Halide 600-900 w |
HDI
1. Answer the questions below (2 each)- note these are all independent questions
Name:
(a) label the defined stereocenter as R or S isomer – show your work for credit!
(b) draw a conjugate acid-base pair
(c) translate the ring into its chair form (you do not need to flip it)
(d) draw the major product of monochlorination of the molecule below
(e) draw an aromatic hydrocarbon which is NOT benzene
(f) identify the functional groups present in the molecule
(g) draw a hydrocarbon structure which would exhibit a signal at 3300 cm-1 in its IR spectrum
(h) provide a structure which fits the following terms:
(i) β-keto ester (ii) 3° alcohol
(iii) enamine (iv) bulky base/base only reagent
(v) anti Newman projection (vi) reducing reagent
(vii) cuprate reagent (viii) allylic carbocation
(i) Name or draw the following organic molecules
(i) (ii) 2,3-diethyl-4-methylcyclohexanone
(iii) butyl methyl ether (iv)
(v) 3-chloroaniline (vi)
(j) draw a 6 carbon non-conjugated diene
(k) circle a sp3 atom and square a sp atom in the molecule below
(l) draw a molecule with formula C4H11N which exhibits hydrogen bonding with water but not itself
2. Fill in the boxes below with the correct reagent, reactant or product(s). Show the correct
stereochemistry for products which require it (36)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)
(q)
(r)
3. Use priority rules to label the alkenes below as either the E or Z conformer- show your work for credit!
(8)
(a) (b)
(c) draw the Diels-Alder product of the alkenes in (a) and (b) above (don’t worry about
stereochemistry in product)
4. A molecule has been identified and the structure is shown below. Also supplied is the IR and H NMR
spectrum. Use these spectra to confirm the identity of the molecule as directed (17)
(a) identify the bond represented by the labeled peaks in the IR, list
these bonds with the spectra’s label (ex. Peak 1 = C-C)
Bonds from IR:
(b) for the labels on the H NMR below provide: (1) calculated integration value, (2) splitting pattern
and (3) the structural piece the signal represents (ex. B: 3H, t is a CH3-CH2 piece)
(c) to further justify the identification, explain why the other proposed structure doesn’t fit either the
IR or the NMR spectra
Other proposed structure:
5. Draw an arrow-pushing mechanism to explain the following conversions. Show all intermediate
structures and watch your arrows and charges (17)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
6. Design a synthesis to make the following molecule starting from the indicated starting material.
Show the intermediate structure after each alteration (5)
7. Fill in the boxes below with the correct reagent or product (6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
8. Provide the mechanism for the formation of the benzene derivative shown. Remember to include the
step(s) to form the electrophile (4)
Scrap Paper
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**## Practice.docx**
| |
| — |
| IR Correlation Table |
| C-H Alkanes (stretch) 3000-2850 s<br> -CH3 (bend) 1450 & 1375 m<br> -CH2 (bend) 1465 m<br>Alkenes (stretch) 3100-3000 m<br>(out-of-plane) 1000-650 s<br>Aromatics (stretch) 3150-3050 s<br>(out-of-plane) 900-690 s<br>Alkyne (stretch) ~3300 s<br>Aldehyde 2900-2700 w<br>C=C Alkene 1680-1600 m-w<br>Aromatic 1600 & 1475 m, w<br>C≡C Alkyne 2250-2100 m-w<br>C=O Carbonyl 1780-1680 s<br>C-O ROH,ROR,ROOH,ROOR 1300-1000 s<br>O-H Alcohol, carboxylic acid 3600-3200 m<br>N-H (stretch) 3500-3100 m<br>(bend) 1640-1550 m-s<br>C-N Amines 1350-1000 m-s<br>C-X Alkyl Halide 600-900 w |
HDI
1. Answer the questions below (2 each)- note these are all independent questions
Name:
(a) label the defined stereocenter as R or S isomer – show your work for credit!
(b) draw a conjugate acid-base pair
(c) translate the ring into its chair form (you do not need to flip it)
(d) draw the major product of monochlorination of the molecule below
(e) draw an aromatic hydrocarbon which is NOT benzene
(f) identify the functional groups present in the molecule
(g) draw a hydrocarbon structure which would exhibit a signal at 3300 cm-1 in its IR spectrum
(h) provide a structure which fits the following terms:
(i) β-keto ester (ii) 3° alcohol
(iii) enamine (iv) bulky base/base only reagent
(v) anti Newman projection (vi) reducing reagent
(vii) cuprate reagent (viii) allylic carbocation
(i) Name or draw the following organic molecules
(i) (ii) 2,3-diethyl-4-methylcyclohexanone
(iii) butyl methyl ether (iv)
(v) 3-chloroaniline (vi)
(j) draw a 6 carbon non-conjugated diene
(k) circle a sp3 atom and square a sp atom in the molecule below
(l) draw a molecule with formula C4H11N which exhibits hydrogen bonding with water but not itself
2. Fill in the boxes below with the correct reagent, reactant or product(s). Show the correct
stereochemistry for products which require it (36)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)
(q)
(r)
3. Use priority rules to label the alkenes below as either the E or Z conformer- show your work for credit!
(8)
(a) (b)
(c) draw the Diels-Alder product of the alkenes in (a) and (b) above (don’t worry about
stereochemistry in product)
4. A molecule has been identified and the structure is shown below. Also supplied is the IR and H NMR
spectrum. Use these spectra to confirm the identity of the molecule as directed (17)
(a) identify the bond represented by the labeled peaks in the IR, list
these bonds with the spectra’s label (ex. Peak 1 = C-C)
Bonds from IR:
(b) for the labels on the H NMR below provide: (1) calculated integration value, (2) splitting pattern
and (3) the structural piece the signal represents (ex. B: 3H, t is a CH3-CH2 piece)
(c) to further justify the identification, explain why the other proposed structure doesn’t fit either the
IR or the NMR spectra
Other proposed structure:
5. Draw an arrow-pushing mechanism to explain the following conversions. Show all intermediate
structures and watch your arrows and charges (17)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
6. Design a synthesis to make the following molecule starting from the indicated starting material.
Show the intermediate structure after each alteration (5)
7. Fill in the boxes below with the correct reagent or product (6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
8. Provide the mechanism for the formation of the benzene derivative shown. Remember to include the
step(s) to form the electrophile (4)
Scrap Paper
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As part of our exploration of chemistry, find **a video** that talks about chemistry. I have provided some examples of chemistry topics. You are not restricted to these topics. You should look for information about a topic from a reliable source. I am not requiring that it be peer-reviewed, but it s…
Immediate access to the full model answer, formatted citations, and rubric breakdown.
Have this question answered from scratch according to your specific instructions and deadline.
Order on TutorsGallery →As part of our exploration of chemistry, find **a video** that talks about chemistry.
I have provided some examples of chemistry topics. You are not restricted to these topics. You should look for information about a topic from a reliable source. I am not requiring that it be peer-reviewed, but it should not be an advertisement. For example, if you are doing a health-related topic, places like the Mayo Clinic are good sources. You want to avoid a company trying to sell you a product. If you are looking for ideas this might be a great topic for your muddy moment! _You do not need to select the same topic you picked for the article submission_!
For full credit on this post:
1. Write the TITLE of the video as your post title
2. Write the TITLE of the post AND a link in the body of your post. The link is not the title! _**DO NOT summarize the video**_! That's for your peers to do!
3. Explain why you picked the video by topic _**without**_ describing or summarizing the video.
4. Cite your source in your post (here is a link to the Library Infoguide about citations: [MLA Works Cited](https://library.daytonastate.edu/citation/MLAWorksCited))!
For example:
Post title: The Chemistry of Baking
Discussion post content:
The Chemistry of Baking, [https://youtu.be/uRDmrSGokA8?si=_e-POzbScPMSBfeo](https://youtu.be/uRDmrSGokA8?si=_e-POzbScPMSBfeo).
I picked this video because I really like baking and thought it was very interesting.
YouTube. (n.d.). _Science in Action: The Chemistry of Baking_. YouTube. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uRDmrSGokA8](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uRDmrSGokA8), Accessed 10/18/2024.
– [\
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RubricAssessment-ChemistryinSociety_51BZ_SP25_ON-DaytonaStateCollege.pdf](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/rubricassessment-chemistryinsociety-51bz-sp25-on-daytonastatecollege-pdf-10274549 "RubricAssessment-ChemistryinSociety_51BZ_SP25_ON-DaytonaStateCollege.pdf")
– [\
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IMG_5820.png](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/img-5820-png-10274551 "IMG_5820.png")
– a year ago
Read "Who Kidnapped Fluffy?!!" – the document contains information about the scenario and the chemical principles used in the virtual lab. Download/print "Who Kidnapped Fluffy?!! – Data Collection and Analysis." Watch the video below, pausing as needed, and fill in the data table in the lab document…
Immediate access to the full model answer, formatted citations, and rubric breakdown.
Have this question answered from scratch according to your specific instructions and deadline.
Order on TutorsGallery →Read "Who Kidnapped Fluffy?!!" – the document contains information about the scenario and the chemical principles used in the virtual lab.
Download/print "Who Kidnapped Fluffy?!! – Data Collection and Analysis."
Watch the video below, pausing as needed, and fill in the data table in the lab document, and then write an analysis of the data by answering the questions after the data table.
https://youtu.be/ERtd38uXCUg
– [\
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WhoKidnappedFluffy-SeparationsDataCollectionandAnalysis.docx](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/whokidnappedfluffy-separationsdatacollectionandanalysis-docx "WhoKidnappedFluffy-SeparationsDataCollectionandAnalysis.docx")
– [\
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WhoKidnappedFluffy-Separations.docx](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/whokidnappedfluffy-separations-docx "WhoKidnappedFluffy-Separations.docx")
– a year ago
https://youtu.be/ERtd38uXCUg – a year ago **files (2)** – ## ChemicalChangesVirtualLabdatacollectionandanalysis.docx – ## ChemicalChangesVirtualLab.docx **## ChemicalChangesVirtualLabdatacollectionandanalysis.docx** 9 **Physical and Chemical Changes Virtual Lab** ### DATA COLLECTION: Be as descripti…
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Order on TutorsGallery →https://youtu.be/ERtd38uXCUg
– a year ago
**files (2)**
– ## ChemicalChangesVirtualLabdatacollectionandanalysis.docx
– ## ChemicalChangesVirtualLab.docx
**## ChemicalChangesVirtualLabdatacollectionandanalysis.docx**
9
**Physical and Chemical Changes Virtual Lab**
### DATA COLLECTION: Be as descriptive and detailed as possible and include physical state, color, opacity, etc. in your observations!!! Watch the video linked in Falcon Online Content for these observations!
| | | |
| — | — | — |
| **Chemicals Reacted** | **Appearance of Chemicals Before Mixing** | **Observations After Chemicals Reacted,**<br>**_especially what changed_** |
| Copper solid<br>(Cu) | | |
| Silver Nitrate solution (AgNO3) | | |
| Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl) | | |
| Sodium Hydroxide solution (NaOH) | | |
| Zinc solid (Zn) | | |
| Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl) | | |
| Sodium Carbonate solution (Na2CO3) | | |
| Calcium Chloride solution (CaCl2) | | |
9
**Physical and Chemical Changes Virtual Lab**
Name
### DATA ANALYSIS:
1. For each of the reactions in the Data Analysis, describe the indicator of chemical change that you noted in your Observations (~ 4 sentences per reaction).
**Use the table of Chemical Changes in the Introduction and Theory to pick your indication**. Start your explanation with the indication of the chemical change (example, “In my observations, I noted [indicator from the table]”). Explain the change from your initial observations before mixing and after the reaction occurred. If you saw more than one indicator, pick the one that was the most notable.
| | |
| — | — |
| **Chemicals Reacted** | **Indication and Explanation of a Chemical Change** |
| Copper solid reacted with Silver Nitrate solution: | |
| Hydrochloric Acid solution reacted with Sodium Hydroxide solution | |
| Zinc solid reacted with Hydrochloric Acid solution | |
| Sodium Carbonate solution reacted with Calcium Chloride solution | |
2. Classify each of the events described below as either “chemical change” or “physical change”.
| | |
| — | — |
| **Description of Event** | **Classification** |
| An apple begins to rot. | |
| A wine glass falls to the floor and shatters. | |
| An ice cube melts. | |
| A silver spoon tarnishes. | |
| A wet towel becomes dry. | |
3. Give one example of a chemical change that you encounter in your everyday life.
**NOTE:** _You may NOT use any of the examples listed in question #2 above!_
4. Give one example of a physical change that you encounter in your everyday life.
**NOTE:** _You may NOT use any of the examples listed in question #2 above!_
**## ChemicalChangesVirtualLab.docx**
**Physical and Chemical Changes Virtual Lab**
### INTRODUCTION AND THEORY:
**Matter and Its Physical and Chemical Changes**
Matter is defined as any material that has mass and occupies space. If we find that a sample of matter can be divided into more than one component using some means of
physical separation, then we know our sample of matter must be a
mixture. If we are unable to separate our sample of matter into different components, then it must contain only one type of material referred to as a
pure substance. Thus, mixtures are made up of two or more pure substances.
There are many different ways to physically separate a mixture. Each separation method is based upon some
physical change. Examples of physical changes are:
| | |
| — | — |
| **Physical Changes** |
| **Change of:** | **Examples:** |
| State (solid, liquid, gas) | Boiling, Freezing |
| Appearance | Dissolving a solid in a liquid |
| Shape | Molding a lump of clay into a vase |
| Size | Breaking a piece of glass into pieces |
An example of a physical separation method is distillation, which separates pure substances based upon their differences in boiling point. Ethanol can be separated from a fermentation mixture (containing water, other organic chemicals, and non-volatile debris) using distillation. When you brew coffee, you are using gravity filtration to separate the soluble chemicals in the ground coffee beans from the insoluble grounds left in the filter paper. The means of separation here is the physical property of solubility in hot water. The key concept here is that physical separations, distillation, gravity filtration, etc., do not alter the chemical identity of any chemicals. The products after separation are the same chemicals that were initially used to make the mixture.
This is very different from
chemical changes (or “chemical reactions”) which result in formation of at least one new chemical substance. During a chemical change, some chemical bonds of the starting material(s) are broken, and some new chemical bonds are formed. At least one of the original chemicals must be used up (consumed), and at least one new chemical substance will be formed (produced).
When two materials are added together, they may or may not undergo a chemical change. If a chemical change occurs, there often (but not always!) will be some sort of obvious evidence that a chemical reaction has taken place. Some examples of indications of a chemical change are:
| |
| — |
| **Chemical Changes** |
| **Indication that a Chemical Change occurred:** |
| Permanent color change |
| Formation of a solid (called a “precipitate” when it from the mixing of two solutions) |
| Formation of a gas (continuous bubbling that isn’t caused by heating) |
| Significant change in temperature (much hotter or colder) |
| Emission of light or other form of electromagnetic radiation |
When you are asked to describe a material and its appearance before an experiment, you should include as much information as possible. You should describe its physical state (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas) and color. In addition, you might want to include the material’s opacity if it’s a solution/liquid (whether it is clear or cloudy), a description of its shape or texture if it’s a solid, a temperature estimate (is it warm or cool?), and whether it is uniform in appearance or has distinct regions. For example, if you were describing a chocolate chip cookie, you would observe that it was an approximately round-shaped solid with one flat side, composed of mostly tan-colored grainy material, and includes distinct smooth dark brown regions. If the cookie was fresh from the oven, you could note that it was warm to the touch, but cooling as it sat on the counter/cooling rack.
**Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures**
If no chemical reaction occurs when we combine two or more materials, then the result will be some sort of mixture. There are two different types of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous. A
homogeneous mixture is one in which the material is visually uniform in appearance throughout and has uniform chemical composition. An example would be if you dissolved some sugar in water, forming a uniform, clear and colorless solution of sugar water. Once the sugar has completely dissolved and dissipated, any sample of the mixture which you remove would have the same appearance; a clear, colorless solution. The mixture would also show the same chemical composition; the same proportions of sugar and water would be found in each sample you remove. Note that the process of dissolving the sugar in water does not break or form any new chemical bonds. We could physically separate this mixture by allowing the water to evaporate, and the sugar would be recovered intact as the non-volatile residue.
In contrast, a
heterogeneous mixture has distinct regions with (usually) different appearance and (always) different chemical composition. For instance, oil and vinegar salad dressing separates into two distinct layers – a layer containing the oil floating on top of the bottom layer containing the vinegar. If the oil and vinegar are similar in color, then the two layers may have similar “appearance”, but they clearly are chemically distinct!
### The Procedure used to conduct the chemical changes experiments was:
A.
**Copper solid (Cu) and Silver Nitrate solution (AgNO3):**
1. A piece of copper wire (Cu) and a test tube containing a small volume of silver nitrate solution (AgNO3) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the copper wire (Cu) and the appearance of the silver nitrate solution (AgNO3) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The copper wire (Cu) was dropped into the test tube containing the silver nitrate solution (AgNO3).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
B.
**Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl) and Sodium Hydroxide solution (NaOH):**
1. A test tube containing a small volume of hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and a test tube containing a small volume of sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) were obtained. A digital thermometer was placed in the test tube of HCl solution.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and the appearance of the sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) was added to the test tube containing the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and the temperature was observed.
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
C.
**Zinc solid (Zn) and Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl):**
1. A test tube containing a small amount of zinc solid (Zn) and a test tube containing a small volume of hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the zinc solid (Zn) and the appearance of the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) was added to the test tube containing the zinc solid (Zn).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
D.
**Sodium Carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and Calcium Chloride solution (CaCl2):**
1. A test tube containing a small volume of sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and a test tube containing a small volume of calcium chloride solution (CaCl2) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and the appearance of the calcium chloride solution (CaCl2) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) was added
_slowly_ to the test tube containing the calcium chloride solution (CaCl2).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
**## ChemicalChangesVirtualLab.docx**
**Physical and Chemical Changes Virtual Lab**
### INTRODUCTION AND THEORY:
**Matter and Its Physical and Chemical Changes**
Matter is defined as any material that has mass and occupies space. If we find that a sample of matter can be divided into more than one component using some means of
physical separation, then we know our sample of matter must be a
mixture. If we are unable to separate our sample of matter into different components, then it must contain only one type of material referred to as a
pure substance. Thus, mixtures are made up of two or more pure substances.
There are many different ways to physically separate a mixture. Each separation method is based upon some
physical change. Examples of physical changes are:
| | |
| — | — |
| **Physical Changes** |
| **Change of:** | **Examples:** |
| State (solid, liquid, gas) | Boiling, Freezing |
| Appearance | Dissolving a solid in a liquid |
| Shape | Molding a lump of clay into a vase |
| Size | Breaking a piece of glass into pieces |
An example of a physical separation method is distillation, which separates pure substances based upon their differences in boiling point. Ethanol can be separated from a fermentation mixture (containing water, other organic chemicals, and non-volatile debris) using distillation. When you brew coffee, you are using gravity filtration to separate the soluble chemicals in the ground coffee beans from the insoluble grounds left in the filter paper. The means of separation here is the physical property of solubility in hot water. The key concept here is that physical separations, distillation, gravity filtration, etc., do not alter the chemical identity of any chemicals. The products after separation are the same chemicals that were initially used to make the mixture.
This is very different from
chemical changes (or “chemical reactions”) which result in formation of at least one new chemical substance. During a chemical change, some chemical bonds of the starting material(s) are broken, and some new chemical bonds are formed. At least one of the original chemicals must be used up (consumed), and at least one new chemical substance will be formed (produced).
When two materials are added together, they may or may not undergo a chemical change. If a chemical change occurs, there often (but not always!) will be some sort of obvious evidence that a chemical reaction has taken place. Some examples of indications of a chemical change are:
| |
| — |
| **Chemical Changes** |
| **Indication that a Chemical Change occurred:** |
| Permanent color change |
| Formation of a solid (called a “precipitate” when it from the mixing of two solutions) |
| Formation of a gas (continuous bubbling that isn’t caused by heating) |
| Significant change in temperature (much hotter or colder) |
| Emission of light or other form of electromagnetic radiation |
When you are asked to describe a material and its appearance before an experiment, you should include as much information as possible. You should describe its physical state (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas) and color. In addition, you might want to include the material’s opacity if it’s a solution/liquid (whether it is clear or cloudy), a description of its shape or texture if it’s a solid, a temperature estimate (is it warm or cool?), and whether it is uniform in appearance or has distinct regions. For example, if you were describing a chocolate chip cookie, you would observe that it was an approximately round-shaped solid with one flat side, composed of mostly tan-colored grainy material, and includes distinct smooth dark brown regions. If the cookie was fresh from the oven, you could note that it was warm to the touch, but cooling as it sat on the counter/cooling rack.
**Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures**
If no chemical reaction occurs when we combine two or more materials, then the result will be some sort of mixture. There are two different types of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous. A
homogeneous mixture is one in which the material is visually uniform in appearance throughout and has uniform chemical composition. An example would be if you dissolved some sugar in water, forming a uniform, clear and colorless solution of sugar water. Once the sugar has completely dissolved and dissipated, any sample of the mixture which you remove would have the same appearance; a clear, colorless solution. The mixture would also show the same chemical composition; the same proportions of sugar and water would be found in each sample you remove. Note that the process of dissolving the sugar in water does not break or form any new chemical bonds. We could physically separate this mixture by allowing the water to evaporate, and the sugar would be recovered intact as the non-volatile residue.
In contrast, a
heterogeneous mixture has distinct regions with (usually) different appearance and (always) different chemical composition. For instance, oil and vinegar salad dressing separates into two distinct layers – a layer containing the oil floating on top of the bottom layer containing the vinegar. If the oil and vinegar are similar in color, then the two layers may have similar “appearance”, but they clearly are chemically distinct!
### The Procedure used to conduct the chemical changes experiments was:
A.
**Copper solid (Cu) and Silver Nitrate solution (AgNO3):**
1. A piece of copper wire (Cu) and a test tube containing a small volume of silver nitrate solution (AgNO3) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the copper wire (Cu) and the appearance of the silver nitrate solution (AgNO3) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The copper wire (Cu) was dropped into the test tube containing the silver nitrate solution (AgNO3).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
B.
**Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl) and Sodium Hydroxide solution (NaOH):**
1. A test tube containing a small volume of hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and a test tube containing a small volume of sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) were obtained. A digital thermometer was placed in the test tube of HCl solution.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and the appearance of the sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) was added to the test tube containing the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and the temperature was observed.
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
C.
**Zinc solid (Zn) and Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl):**
1. A test tube containing a small amount of zinc solid (Zn) and a test tube containing a small volume of hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the zinc solid (Zn) and the appearance of the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) was added to the test tube containing the zinc solid (Zn).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
D.
**Sodium Carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and Calcium Chloride solution (CaCl2):**
1. A test tube containing a small volume of sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and a test tube containing a small volume of calcium chloride solution (CaCl2) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and the appearance of the calcium chloride solution (CaCl2) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) was added
_slowly_ to the test tube containing the calcium chloride solution (CaCl2).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
**## ChemicalChangesVirtualLabdatacollectionandanalysis.docx**
9
**Physical and Chemical Changes Virtual Lab**
### DATA COLLECTION: Be as descriptive and detailed as possible and include physical state, color, opacity, etc. in your observations!!! Watch the video linked in Falcon Online Content for these observations!
| | | |
| — | — | — |
| **Chemicals Reacted** | **Appearance of Chemicals Before Mixing** | **Observations After Chemicals Reacted,**<br>**_especially what changed_** |
| Copper solid<br>(Cu) | | |
| Silver Nitrate solution (AgNO3) | | |
| Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl) | | |
| Sodium Hydroxide solution (NaOH) | | |
| Zinc solid (Zn) | | |
| Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl) | | |
| Sodium Carbonate solution (Na2CO3) | | |
| Calcium Chloride solution (CaCl2) | | |
9
**Physical and Chemical Changes Virtual Lab**
Name
### DATA ANALYSIS:
1. For each of the reactions in the Data Analysis, describe the indicator of chemical change that you noted in your Observations (~ 4 sentences per reaction).
**Use the table of Chemical Changes in the Introduction and Theory to pick your indication**. Start your explanation with the indication of the chemical change (example, “In my observations, I noted [indicator from the table]”). Explain the change from your initial observations before mixing and after the reaction occurred. If you saw more than one indicator, pick the one that was the most notable.
| | |
| — | — |
| **Chemicals Reacted** | **Indication and Explanation of a Chemical Change** |
| Copper solid reacted with Silver Nitrate solution: | |
| Hydrochloric Acid solution reacted with Sodium Hydroxide solution | |
| Zinc solid reacted with Hydrochloric Acid solution | |
| Sodium Carbonate solution reacted with Calcium Chloride solution | |
2. Classify each of the events described below as either “chemical change” or “physical change”.
| | |
| — | — |
| **Description of Event** | **Classification** |
| An apple begins to rot. | |
| A wine glass falls to the floor and shatters. | |
| An ice cube melts. | |
| A silver spoon tarnishes. | |
| A wet towel becomes dry. | |
3. Give one example of a chemical change that you encounter in your everyday life.
**NOTE:** _You may NOT use any of the examples listed in question #2 above!_
4. Give one example of a physical change that you encounter in your everyday life.
**NOTE:** _You may NOT use any of the examples listed in question #2 above!_
**## ChemicalChangesVirtualLab.docx**
**Physical and Chemical Changes Virtual Lab**
### INTRODUCTION AND THEORY:
**Matter and Its Physical and Chemical Changes**
Matter is defined as any material that has mass and occupies space. If we find that a sample of matter can be divided into more than one component using some means of
physical separation, then we know our sample of matter must be a
mixture. If we are unable to separate our sample of matter into different components, then it must contain only one type of material referred to as a
pure substance. Thus, mixtures are made up of two or more pure substances.
There are many different ways to physically separate a mixture. Each separation method is based upon some
physical change. Examples of physical changes are:
| | |
| — | — |
| **Physical Changes** |
| **Change of:** | **Examples:** |
| State (solid, liquid, gas) | Boiling, Freezing |
| Appearance | Dissolving a solid in a liquid |
| Shape | Molding a lump of clay into a vase |
| Size | Breaking a piece of glass into pieces |
An example of a physical separation method is distillation, which separates pure substances based upon their differences in boiling point. Ethanol can be separated from a fermentation mixture (containing water, other organic chemicals, and non-volatile debris) using distillation. When you brew coffee, you are using gravity filtration to separate the soluble chemicals in the ground coffee beans from the insoluble grounds left in the filter paper. The means of separation here is the physical property of solubility in hot water. The key concept here is that physical separations, distillation, gravity filtration, etc., do not alter the chemical identity of any chemicals. The products after separation are the same chemicals that were initially used to make the mixture.
This is very different from
chemical changes (or “chemical reactions”) which result in formation of at least one new chemical substance. During a chemical change, some chemical bonds of the starting material(s) are broken, and some new chemical bonds are formed. At least one of the original chemicals must be used up (consumed), and at least one new chemical substance will be formed (produced).
When two materials are added together, they may or may not undergo a chemical change. If a chemical change occurs, there often (but not always!) will be some sort of obvious evidence that a chemical reaction has taken place. Some examples of indications of a chemical change are:
| |
| — |
| **Chemical Changes** |
| **Indication that a Chemical Change occurred:** |
| Permanent color change |
| Formation of a solid (called a “precipitate” when it from the mixing of two solutions) |
| Formation of a gas (continuous bubbling that isn’t caused by heating) |
| Significant change in temperature (much hotter or colder) |
| Emission of light or other form of electromagnetic radiation |
When you are asked to describe a material and its appearance before an experiment, you should include as much information as possible. You should describe its physical state (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas) and color. In addition, you might want to include the material’s opacity if it’s a solution/liquid (whether it is clear or cloudy), a description of its shape or texture if it’s a solid, a temperature estimate (is it warm or cool?), and whether it is uniform in appearance or has distinct regions. For example, if you were describing a chocolate chip cookie, you would observe that it was an approximately round-shaped solid with one flat side, composed of mostly tan-colored grainy material, and includes distinct smooth dark brown regions. If the cookie was fresh from the oven, you could note that it was warm to the touch, but cooling as it sat on the counter/cooling rack.
**Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures**
If no chemical reaction occurs when we combine two or more materials, then the result will be some sort of mixture. There are two different types of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous. A
homogeneous mixture is one in which the material is visually uniform in appearance throughout and has uniform chemical composition. An example would be if you dissolved some sugar in water, forming a uniform, clear and colorless solution of sugar water. Once the sugar has completely dissolved and dissipated, any sample of the mixture which you remove would have the same appearance; a clear, colorless solution. The mixture would also show the same chemical composition; the same proportions of sugar and water would be found in each sample you remove. Note that the process of dissolving the sugar in water does not break or form any new chemical bonds. We could physically separate this mixture by allowing the water to evaporate, and the sugar would be recovered intact as the non-volatile residue.
In contrast, a
heterogeneous mixture has distinct regions with (usually) different appearance and (always) different chemical composition. For instance, oil and vinegar salad dressing separates into two distinct layers – a layer containing the oil floating on top of the bottom layer containing the vinegar. If the oil and vinegar are similar in color, then the two layers may have similar “appearance”, but they clearly are chemically distinct!
### The Procedure used to conduct the chemical changes experiments was:
A.
**Copper solid (Cu) and Silver Nitrate solution (AgNO3):**
1. A piece of copper wire (Cu) and a test tube containing a small volume of silver nitrate solution (AgNO3) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the copper wire (Cu) and the appearance of the silver nitrate solution (AgNO3) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The copper wire (Cu) was dropped into the test tube containing the silver nitrate solution (AgNO3).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
B.
**Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl) and Sodium Hydroxide solution (NaOH):**
1. A test tube containing a small volume of hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and a test tube containing a small volume of sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) were obtained. A digital thermometer was placed in the test tube of HCl solution.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and the appearance of the sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) was added to the test tube containing the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and the temperature was observed.
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
C.
**Zinc solid (Zn) and Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl):**
1. A test tube containing a small amount of zinc solid (Zn) and a test tube containing a small volume of hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the zinc solid (Zn) and the appearance of the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) was added to the test tube containing the zinc solid (Zn).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
D.
**Sodium Carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and Calcium Chloride solution (CaCl2):**
1. A test tube containing a small volume of sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and a test tube containing a small volume of calcium chloride solution (CaCl2) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and the appearance of the calcium chloride solution (CaCl2) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) was added
_slowly_ to the test tube containing the calcium chloride solution (CaCl2).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
**## ChemicalChangesVirtualLabdatacollectionandanalysis.docx**
9
**Physical and Chemical Changes Virtual Lab**
### DATA COLLECTION: Be as descriptive and detailed as possible and include physical state, color, opacity, etc. in your observations!!! Watch the video linked in Falcon Online Content for these observations!
| | | |
| — | — | — |
| **Chemicals Reacted** | **Appearance of Chemicals Before Mixing** | **Observations After Chemicals Reacted,**<br>**_especially what changed_** |
| Copper solid<br>(Cu) | | |
| Silver Nitrate solution (AgNO3) | | |
| Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl) | | |
| Sodium Hydroxide solution (NaOH) | | |
| Zinc solid (Zn) | | |
| Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl) | | |
| Sodium Carbonate solution (Na2CO3) | | |
| Calcium Chloride solution (CaCl2) | | |
9
**Physical and Chemical Changes Virtual Lab**
Name
### DATA ANALYSIS:
1. For each of the reactions in the Data Analysis, describe the indicator of chemical change that you noted in your Observations (~ 4 sentences per reaction).
**Use the table of Chemical Changes in the Introduction and Theory to pick your indication**. Start your explanation with the indication of the chemical change (example, “In my observations, I noted [indicator from the table]”). Explain the change from your initial observations before mixing and after the reaction occurred. If you saw more than one indicator, pick the one that was the most notable.
| | |
| — | — |
| **Chemicals Reacted** | **Indication and Explanation of a Chemical Change** |
| Copper solid reacted with Silver Nitrate solution: | |
| Hydrochloric Acid solution reacted with Sodium Hydroxide solution | |
| Zinc solid reacted with Hydrochloric Acid solution | |
| Sodium Carbonate solution reacted with Calcium Chloride solution | |
2. Classify each of the events described below as either “chemical change” or “physical change”.
| | |
| — | — |
| **Description of Event** | **Classification** |
| An apple begins to rot. | |
| A wine glass falls to the floor and shatters. | |
| An ice cube melts. | |
| A silver spoon tarnishes. | |
| A wet towel becomes dry. | |
3. Give one example of a chemical change that you encounter in your everyday life.
**NOTE:** _You may NOT use any of the examples listed in question #2 above!_
4. Give one example of a physical change that you encounter in your everyday life.
**NOTE:** _You may NOT use any of the examples listed in question #2 above!_
**## ChemicalChangesVirtualLab.docx**
**Physical and Chemical Changes Virtual Lab**
### INTRODUCTION AND THEORY:
**Matter and Its Physical and Chemical Changes**
Matter is defined as any material that has mass and occupies space. If we find that a sample of matter can be divided into more than one component using some means of
physical separation, then we know our sample of matter must be a
mixture. If we are unable to separate our sample of matter into different components, then it must contain only one type of material referred to as a
pure substance. Thus, mixtures are made up of two or more pure substances.
There are many different ways to physically separate a mixture. Each separation method is based upon some
physical change. Examples of physical changes are:
| | |
| — | — |
| **Physical Changes** |
| **Change of:** | **Examples:** |
| State (solid, liquid, gas) | Boiling, Freezing |
| Appearance | Dissolving a solid in a liquid |
| Shape | Molding a lump of clay into a vase |
| Size | Breaking a piece of glass into pieces |
An example of a physical separation method is distillation, which separates pure substances based upon their differences in boiling point. Ethanol can be separated from a fermentation mixture (containing water, other organic chemicals, and non-volatile debris) using distillation. When you brew coffee, you are using gravity filtration to separate the soluble chemicals in the ground coffee beans from the insoluble grounds left in the filter paper. The means of separation here is the physical property of solubility in hot water. The key concept here is that physical separations, distillation, gravity filtration, etc., do not alter the chemical identity of any chemicals. The products after separation are the same chemicals that were initially used to make the mixture.
This is very different from
chemical changes (or “chemical reactions”) which result in formation of at least one new chemical substance. During a chemical change, some chemical bonds of the starting material(s) are broken, and some new chemical bonds are formed. At least one of the original chemicals must be used up (consumed), and at least one new chemical substance will be formed (produced).
When two materials are added together, they may or may not undergo a chemical change. If a chemical change occurs, there often (but not always!) will be some sort of obvious evidence that a chemical reaction has taken place. Some examples of indications of a chemical change are:
| |
| — |
| **Chemical Changes** |
| **Indication that a Chemical Change occurred:** |
| Permanent color change |
| Formation of a solid (called a “precipitate” when it from the mixing of two solutions) |
| Formation of a gas (continuous bubbling that isn’t caused by heating) |
| Significant change in temperature (much hotter or colder) |
| Emission of light or other form of electromagnetic radiation |
When you are asked to describe a material and its appearance before an experiment, you should include as much information as possible. You should describe its physical state (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas) and color. In addition, you might want to include the material’s opacity if it’s a solution/liquid (whether it is clear or cloudy), a description of its shape or texture if it’s a solid, a temperature estimate (is it warm or cool?), and whether it is uniform in appearance or has distinct regions. For example, if you were describing a chocolate chip cookie, you would observe that it was an approximately round-shaped solid with one flat side, composed of mostly tan-colored grainy material, and includes distinct smooth dark brown regions. If the cookie was fresh from the oven, you could note that it was warm to the touch, but cooling as it sat on the counter/cooling rack.
**Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures**
If no chemical reaction occurs when we combine two or more materials, then the result will be some sort of mixture. There are two different types of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous. A
homogeneous mixture is one in which the material is visually uniform in appearance throughout and has uniform chemical composition. An example would be if you dissolved some sugar in water, forming a uniform, clear and colorless solution of sugar water. Once the sugar has completely dissolved and dissipated, any sample of the mixture which you remove would have the same appearance; a clear, colorless solution. The mixture would also show the same chemical composition; the same proportions of sugar and water would be found in each sample you remove. Note that the process of dissolving the sugar in water does not break or form any new chemical bonds. We could physically separate this mixture by allowing the water to evaporate, and the sugar would be recovered intact as the non-volatile residue.
In contrast, a
heterogeneous mixture has distinct regions with (usually) different appearance and (always) different chemical composition. For instance, oil and vinegar salad dressing separates into two distinct layers – a layer containing the oil floating on top of the bottom layer containing the vinegar. If the oil and vinegar are similar in color, then the two layers may have similar “appearance”, but they clearly are chemically distinct!
### The Procedure used to conduct the chemical changes experiments was:
A.
**Copper solid (Cu) and Silver Nitrate solution (AgNO3):**
1. A piece of copper wire (Cu) and a test tube containing a small volume of silver nitrate solution (AgNO3) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the copper wire (Cu) and the appearance of the silver nitrate solution (AgNO3) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The copper wire (Cu) was dropped into the test tube containing the silver nitrate solution (AgNO3).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
B.
**Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl) and Sodium Hydroxide solution (NaOH):**
1. A test tube containing a small volume of hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and a test tube containing a small volume of sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) were obtained. A digital thermometer was placed in the test tube of HCl solution.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and the appearance of the sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) was added to the test tube containing the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) and the temperature was observed.
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
C.
**Zinc solid (Zn) and Hydrochloric Acid solution (HCl):**
1. A test tube containing a small amount of zinc solid (Zn) and a test tube containing a small volume of hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the zinc solid (Zn) and the appearance of the hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) was added to the test tube containing the zinc solid (Zn).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
D.
**Sodium Carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and Calcium Chloride solution (CaCl2):**
1. A test tube containing a small volume of sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and a test tube containing a small volume of calcium chloride solution (CaCl2) were obtained.
2. Before the reaction, the appearance of the sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) and the appearance of the calcium chloride solution (CaCl2) is observed and recorded, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
3. The sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3) was added
_slowly_ to the test tube containing the calcium chloride solution (CaCl2).
4. Record your observations of the reaction, in detail on the data table—
**_you will do this by watching the video linked in Falcon Online Content!_**
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**## Case_of_Medication_Error.2301906151.pdf**
Page 1“A Case of Medication Error” by Brahmadeo Dewprashad
by
Brahmadeo Dewprashad
Department of Science
Borough of Manhattan Community College, The City University of New York
NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCE
ME Rules Death Of Brooklyn 6-Month-Old ‘Accident’ Resulting From Antibiotic Overdose
Brookdale Hospital Investigating How 17-Pound Baby Got An Adult Dosage
October 26, 2011 11:57 PM
NEW YORK (CBSNewYork) — A Brooklyn family is dealing with absolute devastation after their only child died following
a fatal mistake. Th eir baby boy was taken to the hospital with just a fever and was given what turned out to be a deadly dose
of medication.
Earlier Wednesday afternoon, the New York City Medical Examiner ruled the death of 6-month-old Amaan Ahmmad an
accident. Th e ME said the death was the result of complications following administration of an adult dose of the antibiotic
azithromycin, which is commercially known as Zithromax.
Instead of looking forward to a lifetime of birthdays, the family is now making funeral arrangements for their child. Ummay
Sultana and Amain Ahmmad said their son became ill last Friday, so they took him to Brookdale, where he was born.
“He catch cold and we took him to the emergency,” Sultana said.
Hospital records showed baby Amaan was brought to the ER “alert and responsive” and with the exception of a fever, which
was reportedly around 100, the nursing staff did not list any other visible symptoms.
But an examination led to a diagnosis of clinical pneumonia. Amaan was transferred to the pediatric unit and given a dose of
the azithromycin through an IV drip in his right arm.
According to the nursing notes, at least 36 minutes passed before the hospital staff realized something was wrong.
CBS 2’s Jay Dow spoke with the parents Wednesday and asked the boy’s father who he blames for his son’s death.
“Hospital management, doctor, nurse—of emergency,” he replied.
“I’m like ‘look, look my baby’s dying! My baby’s dying!’ and then nurse came over and said ‘no, you’re baby’s pretty good. He’s
sleeping,’” Sultana told CBS 2’s Sean Hennessey.
A copy of the hospital’s discharge summary states the child was given “Azithromycin (500mg), in error” — which led to
“cardiac shock.”
Family pediatrician Dr. Suzanne Loiselle said that dosage is more typical for an adult and not a 17-pound baby like Amaan.
“Nobody can feel worse for the family than the doctors and nurses that were involved in this child’s care,” Loiselle said. “About
80 milligrams would be appropriate for a child roughly in his weight class.”
Less than 24 hours after the overdose, Ummay and Amain were told their son was brain dead. Amaan was taken off a respirator
on Monday.
“Th ey told us there is no hope because his head is totally collapsed,” his father told Hennessey.
Brookdale Hospital would not answer questions from 1010 WINS or CBS 2, saying only: “We are investigating the circum-
stances of this tragic incident and express our condolences to the Ahmmad family.”
“I never think like that he pass away forever,” Sultana said. “I thought he’s gonna come back.”
Th e two fi rst-time parents said they are both devastated and outraged over a fatal medical mistake that cut short their baby’s
life just as it was getting started.
—Printed with permission of CBS Local
A Case of Medication Error: Conversion
Factors in Clinical Calculations
NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCE
Page 2“A Case of Medication Error” by Brahmadeo Dewprashad
Pre-Case Questions (40 points)
1. Sultana indicated that the baby “catch cold and we took him to the emergency.” She was referring to what is
known as the “common cold.” What causes the “common cold”? What are its symptoms? How is it usually
treated? Is the underlying cause of the illness treated or are only its symptoms treated? (3 points)
Reference: http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/commoncold/pages/default.aspx
2. Th e “common cold” and infl uenza (fl u) are diff erent. What causes infl uenza? What are its symptoms and how is
it generally treated? (3 points)
Reference: http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/Flu/understandingFlu/Pages/overview.aspx
3. What is pneumonia? What causes it? What is its relationship to infl uenza and the common cold? (3 points)
Reference: http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/pneumonia/Pages/Default.aspx
4. Pneumonia is usually treated with antibiotics. What is an antibiotic? (3 points)
Reference: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/antibiotics.html
5. Explain how azithromycin works to treat pneumonia without harming us. In other words, explain the mode of
action of azithromycin and the reason for its selective toxicity. (3 points)
Reference: http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/654antibiotic.html
6. Explain what is meant by the therapeutic index (TI) of a medication. (3 points)
Reference: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/591179/therapeutic-index
7. (5 points)
(a) Defi ne a “conversion factor” and provide an example of it.
(b) Using a suitable example, explain how the conversion factor you provided can be used in a calculation.
8. Some conversions require the use of more than one conversion factor. Using a suitable example, explain how
two conversion factors can be used in a calculation. (4 points)
9. Th e unit for the baby’s temperature is not given in the article. Which unit do you think it is? Explain the reason
for your answer. (3 points)
10. Using suitable examples, explain how temperatures can be interconverted between °F and °C. (6 points)
11. Using suitable examples, explain how weights can be interconverted between lb (pounds) and kg (kilograms).
(4 points)
NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCE
Page 3“A Case of Medication Error” by Brahmadeo Dewprashad
Case Questions (40 points)
1. Pneumonia is characterized by fever (a body temperature above 37.2 °C). Does the patient have a body
temperature that indicates that he has pneumonia? Justify your answer with suitable calculations. (4 points)
2. What was the baby’s weight in kg? (3 points)
3. Some medications are formulated such that there is a slow release of the active ingredients. Such formulations
are known as “extended release.” Azithromycin ER is a single-dose, extended release formulation. Th e
recommended dosage for a child 6 months and older who is brought to the Emergency Room with community
acquired pneumonia is 60 mg/kg administered orally. Azithromycin (immediate release) has much faster onset
of action and acts almost immediately when administered intravenously (by IV). Clinicians exercise clinical
judgment when deciding whether or not to treat a pediatric patient with azithromycin intravenously. If therapy
is deemed necessary, a dose of 10 mg/kg for those age 6 months to 16 years is considered reasonable.
(a) Based on the information above, what would be an appropriate dose of azithromycin ER for a baby weighing
17 lbs such as Amaan? (3 points) Note: Th e dosage used in this problem was obtained from the reference:
http://www.drugs.com/dosage/azithromycin.html#Usual_Pediatric_Dose_for_Pneumonia
(b) How does the appropriate dose of azithromycin ER for a baby weighing 17 lbs such as Amaan compare with
the dose of azithromycin that was given intravenously to Amaan. (3 points)
(c) What would be an appropriate dose of azithromycin (immediate release) administered by IV for a baby
weighing 17 lbs such as Amaan? How does your calculated dose compare with that indicated by Dr.
Loiselle? (3 points)
4. Dr. Loiselle indicated that the 500 mg dosage administered for Amaan is more typical for an adult and not a
17-pound baby. If a 500 mg of the medication is administered to an adult male of 190 lbs, what would be the
dosage (in mg/kg)? If the same amount of medication is administered to an adult female weighing 140 lbs, what
would be the dosage (in mg/kg)? (6 points)
5. Based on your answers to Question 3 above, why do you think that, as a general practice, when antibiotics
(including azithromycin) are prescribed to adults, the same dose is usually given, regardless of weight of the
patient? (5 points)
6. An intravenous dose of azithromycin is usually prepared by injecting a measured small amount of sterile water
into a sealed vial containing a specifi c known amount of solid formulation containing the medication and
shaking the vial until all of it is dissolved. Th e dosage to be administered to a patient is then removed (with a
syringe) and added to a specifi c volume of diluent solution, which is then administered as an IV drip. A diluent
solution that is commonly used is 1/2 normal saline (0.45% sodium chloride solution). If an azithromycin
formulation contains 500 mg of azithromycin and sterile water is added to make 5 mL of the formulation, how
much must be removed with the syringe to add to the diluent solution for a dosage of 80 mg? (3points)
7. (10 points) According to the nursing notes, at least 36 minutes passed before the hospital staff realized
something was wrong. Azithromycin is usually administered intravenously over a concentration range of
1.0 – 2.0 mg/mL over a period of one hour. Consider a hypothetical situation whereby a dose of 500 mg of
azithromycin is administered at 2.0 mg/mL of azithromycin in ½ normal saline.
(a) How many mg of medication would have been administered every 15 minutes?
(b) Plot a graph of dose administered vs. time.
(c) Using the graph only, determine how much medication would be administered in 36 minutes.
(d) What % of medication (relative to the total dose of 500 mg) would be administered by 36 minutes?
(e) How much saline solution would have been administered for a dosage of 500 mg in 36 minutes?
NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCE
Page 4“A Case of Medication Error” by Brahmadeo Dewprashad
•
Case copyright held by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, University at Buff alo, State University of New York.
Originally published November 13, 2014. Please see our usage guidelines, which outline our policy concerning permissible reproduction of this
work. Image in title block by © Yong Hian Lim – Fotolia.com, id#15362639, licensed.
Post-Case Questions (20 points)
1. (6 points) Th e amount of medication that is in the blood (and available to reach cells and treat the underlying
condition) is often diff erent than the dose that was given. Th e fraction of a dose of medication that is in the
blood stream and has not been chemically modifi ed (metabolized) by the body is referred to as its bioavailability.
When a medication is administered intravenously, its bioavailability is considered to be 100 % at the time of
administration and this decreases with time as it is metabolized and/or excreted. However, when a medication
is administered orally, its bioavailability is much less due to incomplete absorption and being metabolized on
passing through the liver.
Th e paper referenced below compares (in Figure 2) the concentration of azithromycin in the blood in subjects
who were administered 500 mg of the medication orally and in other groups who were given the same dose
intravenously. From the graphs, determine for the healthy patients:
(a) When were the peak concentrations achieved for intravenous and for oral administration of the medication?
(b) What were the peak concentrations for intravenous and for oral administration of the medication?
(c) What were the concentrations after 12 hours for intravenous and for oral administration of the medication?
Note that the graphs in Figure 2 of the article use a logarithmic scale for the azithromycin concentration.
Reference: Beringer, P., et al. 2005. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 49(12): 5013–5017. Th e paper can be accessed
at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1315964/
2. Refl ecting on the case, in what way is an IV dose of azithromycin diff erent than an oral dose in terms of its
dose, onset of activity, eff ect on the infection and on the body. Your response should be no more than a short
paragraph. (5 points)
3. Th e medication administration process starts with a health care provider (medical doctor, physician’s assistant,
or nurse practitioner) who examines a patient, makes a diagnosis, and then writes the order for a medication.
A pharmacist then dispenses the medication and it is a nurse who usually administers the medication. As such,
most medication errors occur as a result of a breakdown in the system. What role can a nurse play in ensuring
that a correct dose of medication is administered to a patient? (4 points)
4. Why do you think it is important for pre-nursing students to learn to do dosage calculations? Explain the
reasoning behind your answer. (5 points)
[http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/](http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/)
[http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/collection/uses/](http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/collection/uses/)
**## Case_of_Medication_Error.2301906151.pdf**
Page 1“A Case of Medication Error” by Brahmadeo Dewprashad
by
Brahmadeo Dewprashad
Department of Science
Borough of Manhattan Community College, The City University of New York
NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCE
ME Rules Death Of Brooklyn 6-Month-Old ‘Accident’ Resulting From Antibiotic Overdose
Brookdale Hospital Investigating How 17-Pound Baby Got An Adult Dosage
October 26, 2011 11:57 PM
NEW YORK (CBSNewYork) — A Brooklyn family is dealing with absolute devastation after their only child died following
a fatal mistake. Th eir baby boy was taken to the hospital with just a fever and was given what turned out to be a deadly dose
of medication.
Earlier Wednesday afternoon, the New York City Medical Examiner ruled the death of 6-month-old Amaan Ahmmad an
accident. Th e ME said the death was the result of complications following administration of an adult dose of the antibiotic
azithromycin, which is commercially known as Zithromax.
Instead of looking forward to a lifetime of birthdays, the family is now making funeral arrangements for their child. Ummay
Sultana and Amain Ahmmad said their son became ill last Friday, so they took him to Brookdale, where he was born.
“He catch cold and we took him to the emergency,” Sultana said.
Hospital records showed baby Amaan was brought to the ER “alert and responsive” and with the exception of a fever, which
was reportedly around 100, the nursing staff did not list any other visible symptoms.
But an examination led to a diagnosis of clinical pneumonia. Amaan was transferred to the pediatric unit and given a dose of
the azithromycin through an IV drip in his right arm.
According to the nursing notes, at least 36 minutes passed before the hospital staff realized something was wrong.
CBS 2’s Jay Dow spoke with the parents Wednesday and asked the boy’s father who he blames for his son’s death.
“Hospital management, doctor, nurse—of emergency,” he replied.
“I’m like ‘look, look my baby’s dying! My baby’s dying!’ and then nurse came over and said ‘no, you’re baby’s pretty good. He’s
sleeping,’” Sultana told CBS 2’s Sean Hennessey.
A copy of the hospital’s discharge summary states the child was given “Azithromycin (500mg), in error” — which led to
“cardiac shock.”
Family pediatrician Dr. Suzanne Loiselle said that dosage is more typical for an adult and not a 17-pound baby like Amaan.
“Nobody can feel worse for the family than the doctors and nurses that were involved in this child’s care,” Loiselle said. “About
80 milligrams would be appropriate for a child roughly in his weight class.”
Less than 24 hours after the overdose, Ummay and Amain were told their son was brain dead. Amaan was taken off a respirator
on Monday.
“Th ey told us there is no hope because his head is totally collapsed,” his father told Hennessey.
Brookdale Hospital would not answer questions from 1010 WINS or CBS 2, saying only: “We are investigating the circum-
stances of this tragic incident and express our condolences to the Ahmmad family.”
“I never think like that he pass away forever,” Sultana said. “I thought he’s gonna come back.”
Th e two fi rst-time parents said they are both devastated and outraged over a fatal medical mistake that cut short their baby’s
life just as it was getting started.
—Printed with permission of CBS Local
A Case of Medication Error: Conversion
Factors in Clinical Calculations
NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCE
Page 2“A Case of Medication Error” by Brahmadeo Dewprashad
Pre-Case Questions (40 points)
1. Sultana indicated that the baby “catch cold and we took him to the emergency.” She was referring to what is
known as the “common cold.” What causes the “common cold”? What are its symptoms? How is it usually
treated? Is the underlying cause of the illness treated or are only its symptoms treated? (3 points)
Reference: http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/commoncold/pages/default.aspx
2. Th e “common cold” and infl uenza (fl u) are diff erent. What causes infl uenza? What are its symptoms and how is
it generally treated? (3 points)
Reference: http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/Flu/understandingFlu/Pages/overview.aspx
3. What is pneumonia? What causes it? What is its relationship to infl uenza and the common cold? (3 points)
Reference: http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/pneumonia/Pages/Default.aspx
4. Pneumonia is usually treated with antibiotics. What is an antibiotic? (3 points)
Reference: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/antibiotics.html
5. Explain how azithromycin works to treat pneumonia without harming us. In other words, explain the mode of
action of azithromycin and the reason for its selective toxicity. (3 points)
Reference: http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/654antibiotic.html
6. Explain what is meant by the therapeutic index (TI) of a medication. (3 points)
Reference: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/591179/therapeutic-index
7. (5 points)
(a) Defi ne a “conversion factor” and provide an example of it.
(b) Using a suitable example, explain how the conversion factor you provided can be used in a calculation.
8. Some conversions require the use of more than one conversion factor. Using a suitable example, explain how
two conversion factors can be used in a calculation. (4 points)
9. Th e unit for the baby’s temperature is not given in the article. Which unit do you think it is? Explain the reason
for your answer. (3 points)
10. Using suitable examples, explain how temperatures can be interconverted between °F and °C. (6 points)
11. Using suitable examples, explain how weights can be interconverted between lb (pounds) and kg (kilograms).
(4 points)
NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCE
Page 3“A Case of Medication Error” by Brahmadeo Dewprashad
Case Questions (40 points)
1. Pneumonia is characterized by fever (a body temperature above 37.2 °C). Does the patient have a body
temperature that indicates that he has pneumonia? Justify your answer with suitable calculations. (4 points)
2. What was the baby’s weight in kg? (3 points)
3. Some medications are formulated such that there is a slow release of the active ingredients. Such formulations
are known as “extended release.” Azithromycin ER is a single-dose, extended release formulation. Th e
recommended dosage for a child 6 months and older who is brought to the Emergency Room with community
acquired pneumonia is 60 mg/kg administered orally. Azithromycin (immediate release) has much faster onset
of action and acts almost immediately when administered intravenously (by IV). Clinicians exercise clinical
judgment when deciding whether or not to treat a pediatric patient with azithromycin intravenously. If therapy
is deemed necessary, a dose of 10 mg/kg for those age 6 months to 16 years is considered reasonable.
(a) Based on the information above, what would be an appropriate dose of azithromycin ER for a baby weighing
17 lbs such as Amaan? (3 points) Note: Th e dosage used in this problem was obtained from the reference:
http://www.drugs.com/dosage/azithromycin.html#Usual_Pediatric_Dose_for_Pneumonia
(b) How does the appropriate dose of azithromycin ER for a baby weighing 17 lbs such as Amaan compare with
the dose of azithromycin that was given intravenously to Amaan. (3 points)
(c) What would be an appropriate dose of azithromycin (immediate release) administered by IV for a baby
weighing 17 lbs such as Amaan? How does your calculated dose compare with that indicated by Dr.
Loiselle? (3 points)
4. Dr. Loiselle indicated that the 500 mg dosage administered for Amaan is more typical for an adult and not a
17-pound baby. If a 500 mg of the medication is administered to an adult male of 190 lbs, what would be the
dosage (in mg/kg)? If the same amount of medication is administered to an adult female weighing 140 lbs, what
would be the dosage (in mg/kg)? (6 points)
5. Based on your answers to Question 3 above, why do you think that, as a general practice, when antibiotics
(including azithromycin) are prescribed to adults, the same dose is usually given, regardless of weight of the
patient? (5 points)
6. An intravenous dose of azithromycin is usually prepared by injecting a measured small amount of sterile water
into a sealed vial containing a specifi c known amount of solid formulation containing the medication and
shaking the vial until all of it is dissolved. Th e dosage to be administered to a patient is then removed (with a
syringe) and added to a specifi c volume of diluent solution, which is then administered as an IV drip. A diluent
solution that is commonly used is 1/2 normal saline (0.45% sodium chloride solution). If an azithromycin
formulation contains 500 mg of azithromycin and sterile water is added to make 5 mL of the formulation, how
much must be removed with the syringe to add to the diluent solution for a dosage of 80 mg? (3points)
7. (10 points) According to the nursing notes, at least 36 minutes passed before the hospital staff realized
something was wrong. Azithromycin is usually administered intravenously over a concentration range of
1.0 – 2.0 mg/mL over a period of one hour. Consider a hypothetical situation whereby a dose of 500 mg of
azithromycin is administered at 2.0 mg/mL of azithromycin in ½ normal saline.
(a) How many mg of medication would have been administered every 15 minutes?
(b) Plot a graph of dose administered vs. time.
(c) Using the graph only, determine how much medication would be administered in 36 minutes.
(d) What % of medication (relative to the total dose of 500 mg) would be administered by 36 minutes?
(e) How much saline solution would have been administered for a dosage of 500 mg in 36 minutes?
NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCE
Page 4“A Case of Medication Error” by Brahmadeo Dewprashad
•
Case copyright held by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, University at Buff alo, State University of New York.
Originally published November 13, 2014. Please see our usage guidelines, which outline our policy concerning permissible reproduction of this
work. Image in title block by © Yong Hian Lim – Fotolia.com, id#15362639, licensed.
Post-Case Questions (20 points)
1. (6 points) Th e amount of medication that is in the blood (and available to reach cells and treat the underlying
condition) is often diff erent than the dose that was given. Th e fraction of a dose of medication that is in the
blood stream and has not been chemically modifi ed (metabolized) by the body is referred to as its bioavailability.
When a medication is administered intravenously, its bioavailability is considered to be 100 % at the time of
administration and this decreases with time as it is metabolized and/or excreted. However, when a medication
is administered orally, its bioavailability is much less due to incomplete absorption and being metabolized on
passing through the liver.
Th e paper referenced below compares (in Figure 2) the concentration of azithromycin in the blood in subjects
who were administered 500 mg of the medication orally and in other groups who were given the same dose
intravenously. From the graphs, determine for the healthy patients:
(a) When were the peak concentrations achieved for intravenous and for oral administration of the medication?
(b) What were the peak concentrations for intravenous and for oral administration of the medication?
(c) What were the concentrations after 12 hours for intravenous and for oral administration of the medication?
Note that the graphs in Figure 2 of the article use a logarithmic scale for the azithromycin concentration.
Reference: Beringer, P., et al. 2005. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 49(12): 5013–5017. Th e paper can be accessed
at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1315964/
2. Refl ecting on the case, in what way is an IV dose of azithromycin diff erent than an oral dose in terms of its
dose, onset of activity, eff ect on the infection and on the body. Your response should be no more than a short
paragraph. (5 points)
3. Th e medication administration process starts with a health care provider (medical doctor, physician’s assistant,
or nurse practitioner) who examines a patient, makes a diagnosis, and then writes the order for a medication.
A pharmacist then dispenses the medication and it is a nurse who usually administers the medication. As such,
most medication errors occur as a result of a breakdown in the system. What role can a nurse play in ensuring
that a correct dose of medication is administered to a patient? (4 points)
4. Why do you think it is important for pre-nursing students to learn to do dosage calculations? Explain the
reasoning behind your answer. (5 points)
[http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/](http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/)
[http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/collection/uses/](http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/collection/uses/)